which is sometimes used in this sense in English, must be suppressed in French.-Ex. To disgrace the profession OF AN AUTHOR, Déshonorer la profession D'AUTEUR. It must also be observed, that, when the substantive shewing the species or kind of another, is parted from it by an adjective, it will sometimes take the article definite; though it does not, when there is only the preposition de between the two substantives. Thus, you may say, Les droits DE PROPRIÉTÉ les plus sacrés, or les droits les plus sacrés DE LA PROPRIÉTE.

A. III. Substantives which are joined by neither, nor, or by either and or in negative sentences, and have any understood before them, have no article in French, when they are accusa

self spoken of. I shall try to illustrate this difficulty by a few examples. In the state OF NATURE self-love does not exist; The state OF MAN has its duties; A philosopher reads the book of NATURE; The liberty OF MAN consists in doing what is not forbidden. The words, nature, man, in the two first sentences, only show the kind of state which is mentioned, and are used without any article: Dans l'état DE NATURE, &c. L'état D'HOMME, &c. In the two last they are more the objects of the discourse, and therefore require the article definite. Le livre DE LA NATURE; La liberté DE L'HOMME. But the two following sentences from one of our best prose authors, in which the same words gloire and vertu seem to be taken in the same sense, show that sometimes it may be indifferent to use the article or not: Les nations ignorantes qui ont eu DES IDÉES DE LA GLOIRE ET DE LA VERTU sont des exceptions; Barbarous nations, which have had ideas OF GLORY AND VIRTUE, are exceptions: Toutes les nations, avec LEURS BELLES IDÉES DE GLOIRE ET DE VERTU, en ont toujours perdu l'amour et la pratique; All nations, notwithstanding THEIR FINE IDEAS OF GLORY AND VIRTUE, have at last ceased to love and practise them. The following example, C'était un courage DE DÉSESPOIR et non DE VERTU, will prove that the noun shewing the species is used without an article, when that on which it depends has the article indefinite; but when the governing noun has the article definite; as in this sentence, C'était le courage DU DÉSESPOIR ET NON DE LA VERTU, the noun governed has the same article, except when it can be changed into an adjective.-Ex. Les principes DE MORALE que j'ai reçus, The MORAL principles I have received.

tives in that language, or preceded by the impersonal verby avoir.-Ex. I have neither GOLD nor SILVER (that is, neither any gold, nor any silver), Je n'ai ni OR ni ARGENT. But observe, that when several substantives are enumerated, if the first in English is preceded by neither, they must all, in French, be preceded by ni.-Ex. Those lands produce neither GOLD, SILVER, nor PRECIOUS STONES; Ces terres ne produi sent NI OR, NI ARGENT, NI PIERRES PRÉCIEUSES. Mar montel has said, Je ne veux dans un cœur tout à moi ni DE L' AIGREUR ni DE L'AMERTUME; but he might likewise have suppressed the article, and said, Je ne veux ni AIGREUR ni

AMERTUME.

A. IV. When a metaphysical substantive serves to express what another noun is, especially after the verbs appeler, to call; entendre ou vouloir dire par, to mean by; and expressions equivalent to them, it is generally used without an arti cle.-Ex. Their courage might be called FEROCIOUSNESS, Leur courage pourrait s'appeler FEROCITÉ; Qu'entend on par GRANDEUR D'AME? What is meant by NOBLE SPIRIT? The same rule may also be applied to the verb étre; but not so generally. You say without any article, Leur savoir n'était qu'IMPOSTURE, Their learning was only DECEIT; Pour bien définir ce que c'est que BEAUTÉ POËTIQUE, To give a good definition of what is POETICAL BEAUTY: but it is used in the following examples, Sans la religion nous ne pourrions pas savoir ce que c'est que l'ame; Without religion we could not know what THE SOUL is; Chez les nations barbares le courage n'est UNE DISTINCTION que lorsqu'il cesse d'être UNE VERTU; Among barbarous nations, courage is a distinction only when it is no longer A VIRTUE.

4. V. A noun with one of these prepositions, à, to, at; avec, with; contre, against; entre, between; par, by; sans, without; being used to modify a verb or another noun, has no article.-Ex. To do a thing WITH COURAGE, Faire une chose AVEC COURAGE; Quarrels BETWEEN RELATIONS, Des que relles ENTRE PARENS; A man WITHOUT A TITLE, Un hom

me SANS TITRE.

In these examples, un homme sans vertu, agir avec courage, the expressions, sans vertu, avec courage, are evidently used in a modifying sense, since they may be changed; one into an adjective, a vicious man; the other into an adverb, to act courageously; which is not the case in this sentence, Sans la vertu, sans le courage, il ne serait pas possible de résister aux passions.

A. VI. No article is used before a substantive which is repeated with the prepositions à, contre, par (when this preposition presents the idea of several things considered separately), pour, sur, and likewise, with de and à, or de and en.-Ex. Pied contre pied, foot to foot; mot à mot, word for word; page par page,page by page; rendre haîne pour haîne, to return hatred for hatred; de nation à nation, from one nation to another; de siècle en siècle, from age to age, or through successive ages. We say, Repousser la force par la force, To repel force by force, as it does not give the idea of several things considered separately; as in this example, Page par page. You should also say, Rendre le mal pour le mal, To return evil for evil; rather than mal pour mal; though you say, Rendre haîne pour haîne.

EXERCISE.

Bribes, promises, threats, all the arts which influence popular assemblies, were used to gain the members.

The general gave notice, in the very midst of winter, to the citizens of all those flourishing towns, to quit their dwellings. Men, women, old men, and children, all fled with the utmost precipitation.

A traveller who directs all his attention to what concerns the happiness of mankind in a state of society, enters the cities, to study the manners of their inhabitants; he wanders over the country, and examines the condition of the peasants; but, when he sees nothing but robbery and devastation, tyranny and wretchedness, his heart is oppressed with sorrow and indiguation.

Citizens, how long will you support the most dangerous enemy of your constitution?

Mere societies of merchants have sometimes fitted out large fleets, and brought about the most important revolutions.

He had stripped them of their wealth by means of a court of justice erected by his sole authority. Several citizens ruined by that chamber, gentlemen and tradesmen, farmers, widows, and orphans, filled the streets of Stockholm, and daily uttered their fruitless complaints at the gate of the palace.

All the tribes of barbarians which conquered the different provinces of the Roman empire, were unacquainted either with sciences, arts, regular government, subordination, or laws.

Their rude institutions were hardly compatible with a state of social union.

Alexandria, once so famous, so celebrated for the great men it has produced, is now only a confused heap of shapeless ruins. All those ancient remains are half buried in sand, or adapted to very different uses from those for which they were originally designed.

An instructor, who wishes to educate a child, does not begin by telling him to practise virtue, for he would not be understood. He teaches him first to be sincere, frugal, courageous; and then he informs him, that the combination of those things is called virtue.

Laura wished to see Mr. M. through a mistake.

for he had taken her book

The author of Telemachus gives lessons for kings, and teaches them how to be more absolute by justice and by virtue, than by the most refined policy of the Italians.

Your reflexions are just; and I am very glad to find that you not only read, but that you reflect upon what you read. A common reader is satisfied with heaping facts upon facts, and loads his memory without exercising his judgment.

When I walk by myself, nature seems to me as if it were at my command. My imagination, wandering from one object to another, creates the most enchanting prospects, and I am raptured in sentiments of bliss.

Some philosophers have said, that man is a sociable animal. If that assertion be true, a Frenchman is more a man than another, for he seems to be made for society only.

It is an injustice to charge a man with principles he actually disowns, unless his practices openly contradict his profession.

In several counties those plants are advertised for half a crown a thousand, whilst, in the nurseries about London, they sell for ten, and sometimes fifteen shillings a hundred.

As parliament meets to day, I cannot make this letter of the usual length; and indeed, after the volumes that I have written to you, what I could say would be useless.

What you see at court is often very different from what it appears to be. A man who smiles upon you would often affront you, if manners did not prevent him; but ambition and avarice, the two prevailing passions at courts, have found that dissimulation was more effectual than violence.

He enters into the feigned distresses of the piece with all the symptoms of real emotion, and sheds tears with the profusion of a girl present for the first time at a tragedy.

The good old man had hardly got down, when Sophia, in the presence of her brothers, informed her father of the rude reception they had given him.

After having made himself entirely acquainted with the character of his countrymen, their ignorance, and their aptitude to enthusiasm, he saw he could erect himself into a prophet.

The natural gravity of the Romans is then changed into a mirthful vivacity, and the sombre city of Rome exceeds Paris. in sprightliness.

Though I agree to what you say, I shall still have the advantage of having persuaded men that I died like a Christian hero. That praise is one of those upon which my panegyrists have dwelt the most.

RULE VI.

Q. I. What is the difference in the use of the article before proper names of countries?

A. There are but few of them in English that are preceded by the article definite: in French, it may be established as a rule that they all require it.-Ex. FRANCE is more populus than SPAIN, LA FRANCE est plus peuplée que L'ESPAGNE.

Q. II. When are nouns of countries to be used without any article in French, as well as in English?

A. I. After a noun of dignity or title; as, The Kings of FRANCE, Les rois DE FRANCE; or more generally after a noun of which they express the country; as, The silks of ITALY, Les soies D'ITALIE.

4. II. After the prepositions, en, to, in (the preposition to before the names of countries is expressed by en, after verbs or substantives which denote motion), and de when it means from out of. Ex. To live IN FRANCE, Vivre EN FRANCE; To go TO SPAIN, Aller EN ESPAGNE; To come FROM ITALY, Venir D'ITALIE. They are also used without an article, when they have the same name as their capitals; in which case, one of the words royaume, république, province, le, &c. is sometimes put before them.-Ex. NAPLES comprehends a part of ancient Cam

C