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Its unhappy completion marked the end of the period of the earliest explorations in the Gulf.

Sixteen years after the return of Moscozo a Spanish conquistador, Don Tristan de Luna, organized a new expedition to the Gulf. This expedition contributed little to the science of geography. By this time Spain's interest in the new land across the ocean and the enthusiasm of her rulers for new explorations and colonization of the New World somewhat slackened.

Although the great advantages derived from the possession and colonization of the newly discovered territories were fully appreciated by the Spanish Government and by the educated class of the Spanish nation, the country lacked ability and resources to develop them. At the same time, the Spanish Government jealously watched the efforts of other nations to establish themselves in the New World. It tried by every means to prevent French colonization of the country surrounding the Gulf of Mexico and did not hesitate to send military expeditions to destroy French colonies.

The results of many expeditions in the Gulf conducted during the first half of the sixteenth century provided the cartographers with new, reliable material for the construction of new maps, and consequently, the outlines of the Gulf shown by them in their drawings began to assume more or less correct configuration. This can be noticed, for instance, by examining figure 5, representing Mercator's map of 1538, in which for the first time the name America was applied to the entire western continent.

It may be of interest at this point to make a brief survey of the geographical names which were given to the Gulf of Mexico. No special name for the Gulf is found on the map of Juan de la Cosa of 1500 or the Waldseemüller map of 1507, although in both of them the location of the Gulf is clearly shown. Cortés, in his despatches, referred to the Gulf as Mar del Norte, while the names Golfo de Florida and Golfo de Cortés are found in the writings of other explorers. The name Sinus Magnus Antilliarum appears on an old Portuguese map made in 1558 by Diego Homen (original in British Museum). Probably the most remarkable name is that of Mare Cathaynum (Chinese Sea) which is found on one chart of the middle of the sixteenth century (copy reproduced in the Mémoirs de la Societé de Nancy, 1832). In 1550 the name

Golfo de Mexico appears for the first time on the world map the original of which, according to Kohl, is in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Earlier Spanish geographers used, also, the name of Golfo de Nueva España. Herrera (1728) called it Ensenada Mexicana and Seño Mexicano, the names which persisted in Spanish admiralty charts until the eighteenth century. The present name, the Gulf of Mexico, and the corresponding names, Golphe du Mexique in French and Golfo Mexicano in Spanish, appear to have been in use since the middle of the seventeenth century.

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During the latter half of the sixteenth century the French Huguenots, trying to escape religious persecution in Europe, made many attempts to establish colonies in Florida. Their efforts were primarily directed to the east coast of Florida where the French penetration lead to many bloody encounters with the Spaniards. Probably the most significant French contribution to geographical knowledge of this time was Le Moyne's map of Florida. Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues was an artist who accompanied a French expedition to Florida under Laudonnière in 1564. map shows only a part of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Since it is known that French observations were limited to the east coast of America between the point south of St. Augustine and Rio Jordedan (Charleston Harbor) in the north, the rest of the map was obviously borrowed from Spanish sources. The names of many places are corrupted as, for instance, Apalache Bay is indicated as Sinus Morquel, corrupted from the Bay of Miruelo, and the Bay of Ponce de Leon (Tampa Bay) is called Sinus Joannis Ponce. This map, published by De Bry in 1591 after the death of the artist, was for 50 years copied by Dutch and French cartographers but was completely ignored by the Spaniards.

Le Moyne produced, also, a series of extraordinarily interesting drawings depicting the home life, habits, methods of hunting, and ceremonies of the Timucua Indians. Excellent reproductions of these illustrations together with a translation of the Latin text of De Bry were published in English (Le Moyne, 1564, ed. 1875) and some of the drawings are reproduced by Swanton (1946, tables 51, 53-57, 81, 82, 85, 87, and 106). Examination of these illustrations gives an insight into the tribal life of Florida

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FIGURE 5.-The Mercator map of 1538. Reproduced from a copy in the Library of Congress.

Indians as it was interpreted by a French artist. Particularly amusing are the scenes of alligator hunting in which the beast exceeds many times its normal size and the peaceful scene of the Timucua Indian women sowing their fields, the latter drawing conveying a bucolic atmosphere in conformity with the prevailing artistic taste. of that time.

No significant advance in geographical knowledge of the Gulf was made during the latter part of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth century. In this period Spanish ships loaded with gold and silver continued to sail from Mexico to Havana following the northern coast of the Gulf and passing the delta of the Mississippi River which was called Cabo de Lodo, or Mud Cape. The names of the earlier discoverers, such as Pineda, Narváez, Ponce de León, De Soto, and others whose exploits made possible the relatively safe sailings of these ships, were almost forgotten.

During the last quarter of the seventeenth century a new era of explorations was initiated by French adventurers who attempted to reach the Gulf coast from the north in order to establish there new colonies. In 1673 two French explorers, Louis Joliet and Father Marquette, descended the Mississippi River from Lake Michigan and voyaged south to the mouth of the Arkansas River. In 1682 La Salle entered the Mississippi by way of the Illinois route, explored the river to its mouth, and in the name of France took possession of its entire drainage basin. Seeing great political and economic advantages in establishing a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River, he obtained support of the French Government and in 1684 sailed from Europe with four ships, one of which was shortly captured by Spaniards. La Salle missed the mouth of the Mississippi River and landed farther west in Matagorda Bay, Texas, where he established his colony. Misfortunes, disease, and death so devastated the ranks of the colonists that in a few years only 45 survivors remained from several hundred who comprised the original party. In desperation, La Salle decided to reach Canada by land and during this journey was assassinated by his men.

One of the results of La Salle's exploration, which is of definite interest to the geography of the Gulf, is the sketch map of the location of his camp on the shores of Matagorda Bay with the

soundings shown in feet. The reproduction of this map, in the form of a tracing from a photograph of the original, is given by Dunn (1917, p. 33).

Rumors of the French penetration in the land bordering the Gulf aroused the half-dormant rivalry between Spain and France and induced the Spanish Government to send several military expeditions with orders to destroy French colonies. As one of the official documents of that time stated, it was necessary to "desarraygar esta espina que se a yntroducido en el corazon del cuerpo de la America" which means to uproot the thorn that had been thrust into the heart of America (Dunn, p. 42).

In 1686 Martin de Echegaray, a naval captain of the presidio of St. Augustine, Florida, attempted to interest the Spanish Government in strengthening Spanish influence in the domain of Florida by transporting 50 Spanish families from the Canary Islands and 25 Indian families from Campeche. In support of his plan, Echegaray submitted a map, which is a good example of the defects of the geographical knowledge of that time, of the interior of the American continent. The Echegaray map shows the large "river Canada," or St. Lawrence River emptying into a lake from which two rivers lead southward to the Gulf of Mexico, both emptying into Espiritu. Santu Bay (Mississippi River). Echegaray's scheme was not accepted, but the Spanish Government took other measures to counteract the French penetration into the new continent and to destroy La Salle's colony of which they were afraid. An interesting account of these attempts is given by Dunn (1917). It is sufficient to mention here that not less than four maritime expeditions were sent by the Spanish Government, and the whole Gulf of Mexico was examined with great diligence. One of the important results of this search for French colonies was the rediscovery of Pensacola Bay which the Spaniards decided to occupy. Admiral Pez was placed in command of an expedition organized for this purpose in 1693. One of his principal companions was Dr. Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora, professor of mathematics in the Royal University of Mexico and chief cosmographer of the kingdom. Siguenza kept a detailed journal of the journey in which he recorded his observations. The vessels of the expedition reached Pensacola Bay on St. Mary's

Day, August 14, 1693, and following their custom, the Spaniards immediately renamed it "Bahia de Santa María de Galve," the last name being added to the holy name of the Virgin in honor of the viceroy of the territory. Siguenza made a detailed survey of Pensacola Bay and described its configuration, depth, islands, and rivers. The expedition proceeded farther east and after some difficulty entered Mobile Bay, made soundings in the channel, and found that the depth was only 20 "palmas." As a result of Siguenza's observations strong recommendations were made to occupy Pensacola, but a final order for this action was not issued until 1698.

Rivalry among the western European powers in establishing a foothold on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico greatly enhanced the geographical knowledge of the region. As a military necessity the whole northern coast of the Gulf, with harbors, rivers, and lagoons, was surveyed; fairly accurate navigational charts were prepared; and information was accumulated regarding the prevailing winds and currents. In this way marked progress was attained in the cartography of the Gulf and adjacent coastal lands.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

At the beginning of the eighteenth century sailing vessels of European powers engaged in trade or in pursuit of military designs continued to traverse the waters of the Gulf in ever increasing numbers, but the era of ambitious expeditions and daring adventures, which in the past fired public enthusiasm, was over. As a matter of routine the ships made astronomical observations and determined the longitude and latitude of the places already known, surveyed the harbors and passes, made numerous soundings, and recorded the direction and velocities of winds and currents. These navigational data were eagerly sought by the cartographers to be incorporated in new maps, numbers of which appeared in various European countries and in Mexico. Examples given below, which illustrate this progress, have been selected from a large array of the cartographic material issued during this period.

French interest in the Mississippi River and the surrounding country is clearly expressed in the work of the famous French geographer, Guillaume Delisle (in the French publications the name is

spelled "de L'Isle" and "Del'Isle") whose chart of Louisiana and of the course of the Mississippi was composed in 1719. The inscription reads that it was drawn after consulting many memoirs of Le Maire and others. The map shows the routes of De Soto and of other explorers and depicts the course of the principal rivers. The name Texas (Los Teijas) for the first time appears in cartography. According to Kohl (1857, No. 238), the Delisle map is "the mother and main source of all the later maps of the Mississippi and of the whole West of the United States."

The entrances to the Mississippi River, being of great importance to the French mariners, were surveyed with great persistency. Among the many persons who contributed to our knowledge of the physiography of the river, Lemoyne de Sérigny occupies a prominent position. In 1719 he participated in military operations in Florida and Louisiana and led a successful attack from the sea against Pensacola. His observations along the northern part of the Gulf coast are incorporated in a map drawn by an anonymous French cartographer and entitled "Carte de la côte de la Louisiane depuis l'Embouchure du Mississippi jusqu'à la Baie de St. Joseph, etc." The Library of Congress has a photographic reproduction of this document. The original is in Paris in Depôt de la Marine. Sérigny produced, also, a detailed map in colors of the approaches to Pensacola Bay. The notation on the body of the latter map contains reference to a strong surface current and the rise and fall of tides approximating 3 feet during a 24-hour period.

In connection with the construction of fortifications around the recently founded city of New Orleans, the French Government detailed many engineers to Louisiana. Among them Bernard de la Harpe distinguished himself by numerous observations which were incorporated in the de Beauvilliers map of 1720. The map shows many streams, mountains, towns, and Indian villages along the Gulf of Mexico and many islands off the coast of Yucatán. The chart of the Louisiana coast drawn about the same time (1719-20) by Devin was also made on the basis of the reports of De la Harpe and other French army officers. It shows many soundings and the positions of shallows and reefs in St. Louis Bay and adjacent

waters.

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navigation along the coasts of America was fully recognized in England. Among the many charts published there during the first half of the eighteenth century that of Henry Popple, issued in 1733 on 20 sheets with an index, is of particular interest. This large chart, measuring 232 by 239 centimeters has the following title: "A Map of the British Empire in America with the French and Spanish Settlements adjacent thereto." A prospectus attached to the first impression contains a detailed description of the map. The Library of Congress has three impressions, one of which is imperfect.

About the middle of the eighteenth century the Spanish Government, feeling the need for more accurate information regarding the extent of its dominions in the New World, demanded by the royal decree of 1741 the submission by local authorities of detailed suveys of their administrative districts. Data thus obtained were summarized by Don José Antonio de Villaseñor y Sanchez, Auditor General of the Department of Quicksilver, who enjoyed a reputation as a "distinguished mathematician, accurate historian, and a good citizen" (Bancroft, 1883-86, v. 3, p. 510). The entire undertaking resulted in the map issued in 1746 under the title, "Icomismo hidroterro 6 Mapa Geographico de la America Septentrional" (original in Arch. Gen. de Indias, Seville; copy in Library of Congress). In the same year the Spanish Government detailed Fernando . Consag to explore the upper part of the Gulf s coast. A reproduction of his map is given by Bancroft (1883-86, v. 1, p. 463).

Jacques Nicolas Bellin, an engineer of the French navy, was probably the most outstanding cartographer of the second half of the eighteenth century. In carrying out official orders of the French Government he made a detailed survey of the coast of Louisiana and of the course of the Mississippi River, drew a plan of Pensacola Bay e (1742), published marine atlases and many maps (Bellin 1749, 1755, 1764). His map of the Gulf of Mexico and of the islands of America, issued in 1754 and published in volume 12 of Prévost's Histoire générale des voyages (1746-89, pp. 8-9), illustrates the state of geographical knowledge of that time. One can see from this map (fig. 6) that the configuration of the Gulf, especially along its west coast, is still incorrect, and the shape of the Florida Peninsula is far from being true.

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In this respect, as well as in the manner of drawing and the angularity of the coastal line, Bellin's map resembles the one prepared by his predecessor, Royal Cartographer D'Anville, in 1731 (fig. 7). Although the outlines of Florida are almost identical in the two maps, it is interesting to note that Bellin does not show such a fantastic array of bays and sounds as are indicated in the southernmost part of Florida by D'Anville.

One of the most notable documents of the second half of the eighteenth century is a map of the British and French dominions in North America published in London by John Mitchell in 1775 in accordance with the Act of Parliament (Mitchell 1755, 1757). The original of one of the earlier issues, identified by only one insert (Hudson Bay) instead of four in the later editions, can be found in the library of Harvard University. A copy of a French edition of 1756 is in the Library of Congress.

Mitchell's map was first used by American and British diplomats at the Paris peace conference of 1782-83 after the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Since that time it had been referred to and quoted as an authentic document in many boundary disputes between the United States and European countries.

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The Harvard University copy has an interesting quotation from John Adams attached to the map which reads as follows: "We had before us ... a variety of maps but it was the Mitchell's map upon which was marked out the whole boundary lines of the United States." The map shows only a small section of the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico between longitudes 83°4′ and 97° W. and latitudes 28°20′ and 30°20' N. Tampa Bay is still called Baia del Espiritu Santo, and there are interesting notations regarding the depth of the water "20 feet water over the Bar of Pensacola the Chief Harbour hereabout" and the depth of "Ye Missisipi" stated to be "18 feet water into Balise, 12 feet over the Bar, 45 feet within, 50, 60, and 100 afterwards."

In 1764-71 George Gauld ordered by the British Admiralty to make a survey of the coast of the provinces of West Florida and Louisiana, produced a map known as "Admiralty Chart." He also gave accounts of his surveys of Florida and sailing directions in the West Indies and Florida Keys (Gauld 1790, 1796). Several editions of Gauld's maps were issued in the United

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