66 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. THE name Hispania, by which the Romans designated the whole of that peninsula, now divided into the separate kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, first occurs at the time of the Roman invasion. It is usually derived from the Punic word span, a rabbit," on account of the great number of these animals which the Carthaginians found in the country; but others suppose the name to be of native origin, and to be the same as the Basque Ezpana, “an edge or border." The Greeks (about B. c. 500) named the country Iberia; but this name originally indicated only the eastern coast the western, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, eing called Tartessizs, and the interior of the country, Celtica; but in later times the name Iberia, derived from the River Iberus, was applied to the entire peninsula. Ancient Boundaries.-N. by the Pyrenees, which separated it from France, and also by the Bay of Biscay; W. by the Atlantic Ocean; E. by the Mediterranean Sea, and S. by the Atlantic and Mediterranean, which unite in the Strait of Gibraltar. besides this mixed race, there were also several tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who were never united with one another-among which were the Astures, Cantabri, Vaccæi, &c. Then, too, there were the immigrating nations and the foreign settlers, who subsequently established themselves in the land: as the Celta Phoenicians, Phocæans, Rhodians, Massaliots, Zacynthians, Carthaginians, and Romans. Some of the Celta, separating from the main body, settled on both sides of the Anas, now Guadiana, near its mouth; while another portion of them wandered as far as the northwestern extremity of the land, where later geographical writers found them under the name of Artabri. The portion, however, which had settled on the Anas retained their original appellation of Celtæ or Celtici. The Phoenicians appear to have become acquainted with Spain long prior to positive history, and of course long before the foundation of either Rome or Carthage. For some time their settlements, of which Ghadir, called by the Romans Gades, now Cadiz, was the principal, were limited to the coasts of Bætica, whence they supplied the natives with the products of Asia, in The Iberians, whose descent some Spanish writers profess to trace from Tubal, son of Noah, were beyond doubt the aborigines or first inhab-exchange for the gold, silver, iron, and other itants of the Spanish peninsula, and the Celtiberi were a mixture of the Iberi and the Celts. The former dwelt on both sides of the Pyrences, and were found in the south of Gaul as far as the Rhone; and the latter afterwards crossed the Pyrenees, and became mingled with the Iberi, whence arose the mixed race who dwelt chiefly in the high table-land in the centre of the country. But valuable products of the Peninsula. But as they became better acquainted with the country, they penetrated into the interior, where they founded Kartabah, called by the Romans Corduba, and now Cordova, and explored the mountainous districts of Navarre in search of iron. The Phoenicians, however, were not the only maritime nation which had settlements on the coast of Spain. The Phocæans founded the town of Dianium, now Denia, and probably, also, that of Chersonesus, now Peniscola, on the eastern coast. The Rhodians visited the shores of what is now Catalonia, and founded a town called Rhodos or Rhoda, now Rosas. The Massaliots, or Massilians, founded the town of Emporion, now Ampurias, and the Zacynthians (from Zante) Saguntum. The Carthaginians also directed their views towards Spain. Having insidiously possessed themselves of Cadiz, which they took from the Phoenicians, they proceeded into the interior, and attempted to subdue the country-an attempt, however, in which they completely failed. The Romans came after the Carthaginians, and suc ceeded in subjugating all Spain, and making it a portion of their empire. They some time afterwards, under Augustus, divided the whole peninsula into two provinces, separated from each other by the Iberus, and called the Nearer and the Farther Spain-Hispania Citerior and Ulterior ---which division continued until the reign of Constantine the Great. The tribes along the coast were, on the side immediately beyond the Straits of Hercules, a mixture of the earliest inhabitants with Phonician settlers, and, on the Mediterranean side, with Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. This intermingling with strangers caused all national peculiarities gradually to disappear. The traffic, too, which they carried on, disposed them the more readily to the receiving of foreign customs and habits; and hence the tribes in the interior held them in contempt, and made frequent inroads into their territories, from which inroads the communities on the coast found it difficult to defend themselves, even with the aid of the foreigners who had settled among them. Roman Division.-Hispania Citerior embraced a great part of the Mediterranean coast, together with as much of the country lying back of it, in the interior, as the Roman arms had thus far reduced; and Hispania Ulterior comprehended what was afterwards called Bætica. Both provinces were gradually extended, as conquests were made, and finally Lusitania was added to the latter. Various changes were subsequently made, by which we shall briefly notice the most important. In process of time, Hispania Citerior changed its name to Tarraconensis, from Tarraco, now Tarragona, the residence of the Roman prætor, and, consequently, the capital of the province. Its limits, also, became definitely established, and extended from the River Magrada, to the mouth of the Durius, now Douro, on the Atlantic shore, comprehending all the north of Spain, together with the south as far as a line drawn from Baria, now Vera, below Carthago Nova, now Carthagena, and continued upward in an oblique direction to the vicinity of Complutica, now Compludo, above Salmantica, now Salamanca, until it struck the banks of the Durius. This was the arrangement up to the time of Augustus. That Emperor, or rather Agrippa, made an alteration in it. The province of Tarraconensis, indeed, although embracing more than two-thirds of the whole of Hispania, remained the same as before; but Hispania Ulterior, was now subdivided into two provinces, Bætica and Lusitania. The former comprised the modern Andalus a a part of the Portuguese province of Alentejo, that portion of Spanish Estremadura which lies south of the Anas, and a large part of La Mancha.The latter comprehended modern Portugal, with the exception of the two provinces north of the Until the time of Augustus, the Cantabri, the Callaici, and the Astures, who inhabited the north-western parts of the Peninsula, were not even nominally subjected to the republic; and the other portions of Spain-Celtiberia in the Independently, however, of this distinction north-east, Bætica in the south, and Lusitania in of provinces, the Romans divided the country the west-became the scene of constant warfare into jurisdictions called Conventus-that is, and rebellion. The most remarkable of the native judicial districts or circuits-in which the insurrections during this period was that organized Roman proconsul or governor dispensed justice. in Lusitania by Viriathus, who, during more than Of these there were fourteen, each one formed of eleven years, defeated the ablest generals of the the union of several cities. This arrangement was republic, and was only overcome by the treachery an extremely politic one on the part of the Rom- of Cæpio, в. c. 140. Soon after this, the Peninans, since it tended directly to break up the nation-sula became the theatre of the civil war between ality of the different tribes, and, of course, to con- Marius and Sulla-Sertorius, a leader of the defirm the Roman sway. feated party, having fled thither, and carrying on the war for some time with great ability and success. According to the writers of the fourth and following centuries, Spain had been again divided into seven provinces, as follows: 1, Bætica; 2, Lusitania; 3, Callæcia; 4, Tarraconensis; 5, Carthaginiensis; 6, Insula Balearica; 7, Mauritania Tingitana. This arrangement is commonly ascribed to the Emperor Hadrian, but it owed its origin, more probably, to Constantine. Of these seven provinces, moreover, Bætica and Lusitania remained the same in size as before. Callæcia, however, comprehended all the Conventus and communities north of the Durius and west of the Vascones. Carthaginiensis, again, had Carthago Nova for its capital, and answered to Murcia, a part of New Castile, and Southern Valencia. And, finally, Tingitana in Africa, which was then reckoned part of Spain, was added, in order to equalize the provinces as much as possible. Historical Epochs. Having already noticed the -principal incidents connected with the early settlement of the country, we shall now hastily glance at a few other occurrences. Spain having espoused the cause of Pompey, Julius Cæsar repaired there in person, and by his military skill triumphed over his enemies. Cneius, the son of Pompey, was defeated at Munda, and peace restored to the country. About the beginning of the fifth century, the Suevi, under their king Hermeric; the Alans, under Atace, and the Vandals, or Silingi, under Gunderic, after overrunning the provinces of Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees, and settled in the Peninsula. They were speedily followed by a host of Visigoths (A. D. 411), led by their king, Athaulf, who established himself in Catalonia, though nominally dependent upon his brother-in-law Honorius, the Roman emperor. It was not, however, until the time of Euric (A. D. 466-83), that the Goths became complete masters of the Peninsula; and the Gothic dynasty continued until the time of Roderic, in whose reign (A. D. 711) the Arabs of Africa, commanded by Tarik Ibn Zeyád, crossed the straits, and, after defeating the whole force of the Gothic monarchy on the banks of the Guadalete, took the capital, Toledo, the ancient Toletum. The fate of Roderic, the last king of the Goths in Spain, was never known his horse and weapons. were found near the battle-field, but his body was no where to be seen. Pelagio, a prince of the blood-royal, taking command of the remnant of the Goths, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and there founded a little kingdom, the boundaries of which were considerably extended by his successors, and finally swelled into some importance as the kingdom of Leon. As Christian nations multiplied, and gradually extended themselves over the country by conquest, of course the power of the Moors became proportionally restricted; and at last, in 1492, their only remaining population on the Pyrenean peninsula (Granada) was conquered by Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised the whole north-east part of Spain, and Castile comprised all other parts; and as Ferdinand and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain after their death came under the sway of their son-in-law Philip, and then of their grandson, the celebrated Charles I. (Charles V., Emperor of Germany), who entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. And here we leave it for the present. Character, &c.-The Iberi, before they yielded to the Romans, occupied a middle station between barbarism and civilization, with a preponderance in favor of the former. They were equally formidable as cavalry and infantry; for, when the horse had broken the enemy's ranks, they dismounted and fought on foot. Their dress con The Moors were at first ruled by governors appointed by the caliphs, then reigning at Damascus-the seat of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until 754; but in 756 Prince Abderrahman founded a new empire in Spain, of which Cordova was the capital, and soon rose to be a splendid city, at one time numbering 1,000.000 inhabitants. In 778 the Moorish governor of Saragossa, who was then at war with the Emir Abderrahman, besought assistance of Charle-sisted of a sagum, or coarse woollen mantle; they magne, who accordingly sent a Frankish army to Spain; and at the termination of this campaign, all the country north of the Ebro was annexed to the Frankish empire, and called the Spanish mark (margraviate). This was afterwards divided into two countries, Barcelona and Navarre, and the count of Navarre assuming the royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain, which subsequently brought into existence the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Gallicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. In 1139, PORTUGAL, formerly a province of the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon, became an independent kingdom. wore greaves made of hair, an iron helmet adorned with a red feather, a round buckler, and a broad two-edged sword, of so fine a temper as to pierce through the enemy's armor. They were moderate in eating and drinking, especially the latter; fond of decorating their persons, of dancing and song, and of robbery and war. Their habitual drink was a sort of hydromel, or mead, brought into the country by foreign traders. The land was equally distributed, and the harvests were divided among all the citizens; the law punished with death the person who appropriated more than his just share. They were hospitable-nay, they considered it a special favor to entertain a stranger. They sacri ficed human victims to their divinities, and the priests pretended to read future events in their palpitating entrails. At every full moon they celebrated the festival of a god without a name, and from this circumstance their religion has been considered a corrupt deism. They were acquainted with the art of writing. The Turduli, an Iberian tribe, are said to have had among them very ancient historical records, and also written poems and laws in many thousand verses. The Lusitani, a nation of freebooters, were distinguished by their activity and their patient endurance of fatigue. Their usual food was flour and sweet acorns; beer was their common beverage. They were swift in the race. They had a martial dance, with which the men advanced to battle. The Turdetani were more enlightened than any other people in Bætica, and were skilled in different kinds of industry long before their neighbors When the Phoenicians arrived on their coasts, silver was so common among them that their or dinary utensils were made of it. What was afterward done by the Spaniards in America was then done by the Phoenicians in Spain: they ex- | changed iron and other articles of little value for silver; nay, if ancient authors can be credited, they not only loaded their ships with the same metal, but, if their anchors at any time gave way, others of silver were used in their place. The Callaici or Gallæci, according to the ancients, had no religious notions. The Vaccæi were the least barbarous of the Celtiberians. The fierce Cantabri had a custom for two to mount on the same horse when they went to battle. The Concani, a Cantabrian tribe, showed their ferocity by mingling the blood of horses with their drink. Among the Celtiberi, an assembly, composed of old men, was held every year, a part of whose duty it was to examine what the women had made with their own hands within the twelvemonth, and to her, whose work the assembly thought the best, a reward was given. Corpulency was considered a reproach; for, in order to preserve their bodies light and active, the men were measured every year by a cincture of a certain breadth, and some sort of punishment was inflicted upon those who had become too large. ISLANDS ADJACENT TO HISPANIA. The In the Mediterranean.-Baleares, also called Gymnesia, Majorca, and Minorca. The first signifying " to throw," the original inhabitants having been very expert in the use of the sling. latter name has a more general reference to the same skill in the use of missiles. The Phoenicians, it appears, were the first settlers of these islands. which, however, had a race of original inhabitants. The Carthaginians, under Hanno, having made themselves masters of the whole group, proceeded to form new settlements, and founded the town of Mago, now Port Mahon, and Jamno, now Ciudadela, in the smaller one. These islands furnished them with considerable bodies of troops in their wars against Sicily and Rome, and a large force of their slingers accompanied Hannibal in his passage across the Alps. When the Carthaginians were driven from Spain, the islanders obtained their freedom, which they made use of to apply themselves to piracy, till they were subdued by the Roman consul Q. Metellus, who founded the cities of Palma and Pollentia in Majorca, and took the surname of Balearicus. They continued attached to the Roman republic as part of Hispania Citerior, and subsequently to the empire, and belonged to the Conventus of Carthago Nova. From the reign of Constantine the Great till that |