who crossed the Andes in 1820-'21, says of it: "On my return over the cordillera, we slept at nearly three miles from the lake; I walked to it, and found it about as much in circumference; it appeared very deep, and to have been the crater of a volcano, like a solfatara, as the mountains are tinged with yellow, and this color is concentrated in many of the rocks detached from them. With some trees and a habitation, this lake would form a very picturesque object; but the only thing seen growing about it is a little grass of brownish hue, and it is a very cold spot. I observed among the rocks near it the prettiest flower that I have ever seen in the Andes, and which reminded me of the Alps." Mr. Miers states, that it is constantly supplied from numerous small cataracts and streams derived from the melting snows; and as it has no apparent outlet, there is little doubt its surplus water escapes through the bottom, to appear again at a spot within the mountains lower down, and which, from the number of perpetual springs in a small locality, is called Ojos de Agua.

Of the Lagunas del Toro and Carisso, mountain collections, alimenting branches of the river Chuapa, the only information obtained is that contained on the published map of M. Gay, which has been adopted on the map accompanying, except for their latitudes and longitudes. In the province of Coquimbo, as yet, but one has been mentioned by travellers, and to this no name is assigned. Adopting the position on a MS. map of Prof. Domeyko, it is situated at an elevation of 10,400 feet above the level of the ocean, in latitude 30° 24', longitude 69° 44'. It consists of the waters of three considerable torrents, which descend through as many ravines of the loftier Andes, collected in a reservoir here, after dividing into many rivulets on a beach extending nearly two miles above the basin. The walls of this last are nearly vertical rocks, more than a thousand feet high, having a narrow pathway only along the southwestern shore, and a natural dyke to the northwest, with a narrow aperture through which the water escapes. Its length is near two thirds of a mile, and its breadth rather more than half that amount. As may be inferred from the number of aquatic plants covering one third of the surface, its water is very shallow. As in summer the supply by the river for irrigating the fields on its banks is notably deficient during many years, and the aperture in the natural dyke is only about fifty yards across, Prof. Domeyko suggested that it would be easy to increase the elevation of the latter so as to retain a larger quantity for such seasons of necessity; but no steps have been taken to carry his useful proposition into effect.

On his map of Atacama M. Gay introduces at the headwaters of the Rio de los Naturalesone of the branches of the Huasco-two small lakes, and cateadores (professional mine-hunters) have brought crystals and concretions of salt from a lake in the vicinity of Cerro de Azufre, besides vague information of salt lakes near the coast in the great desert to the north. None of them, however, can be of such considerable extent as would justify a journey of the geographical student solely for their examination.

Critical examination of their margins shows that the water-courses were once deep streams, susceptible of being navigated by vessels of the largest class. Indeed, the fact is demonstrable by geologists, that they were inlets or arms of the sea, into which melted snows and overflowing lakes in the mountains first discharged their waters. Then, as the continent rose higher and higher, winding brooks, accumulating in volume with each succeeding age, became the torrents that we now see them. From time to time sliding glaciers undermine rocks, and earthquakes dam up channels, until the heaped-up body of water bears everything before it, not unfrequently, on its swollen tide, transporting boulders of many tons weight to localities far away from analogous rocks. At these epochs, fields are submerged by the destroying element; the course of the river is changed; and when an affrighted populace return to the sites of former homes, it is only to weep over garden spots irrecoverably buried beneath gravel and sand deposited by the deluge. One such scene occurred on the Cachapual only a few years since, painfully proving how rapidly beds of shingle may be formed, and forcibly exhibiting the abrading powers of water. Even on ordinary occasions, the noise of stones striking together beneath the surface, as they are borne along by the current, comes most audibly to the ear

等

above the rushing sound of the stream over its rocky bed. How fearful, then, the spectacle during such storms as constantly occur in winter,* when this vast sloping water-shed, saturated by continuous rains, pours all that descends upon it into the narrow ravines! Every one along which I have travelled-the Copiapó, Mapocho, Maypu, Cachapual, and Maule-has its highbounding terraces, at irregular distances, in whose vertical cliffs the running streams have left unmistakable marks, sometimes more elevated than beds of fossil vegetation forming a part of them. That some of these changes have taken place recently, there seems little reason to doubt; for Molina tells us the Maule was navigable for half its length at his day (1787) by ships-of-the-line, and there still lived, in 1850, a native of Coquimbo, whose memory extended to the time when the sea beat against the terrace on which Serena now stands. Now, the base of the terrace is 25 feet above the ocean, and quite a mile from it, and the Maule has not six feet of water at five miles from its mouth.

In the narrative of Dr. Von Tschudi, (American translation,) Chapter XI, he says: “I have in my last chapter observed, that the Cordillera is the point of partition between the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera― all those which have their sources on the level heights and on the western declivity of the Andes-flow from them in the direction of the east, and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the whole of South America there is not a single instance of the Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable, because in southern Peru and Bolivia the coast-chain is lower than the Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and central Chile a later origin than the western chain, (near the Pacific,) but that the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced their way throus a higher chain, seems, without this supposition, to be enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader channels between them." On a preceding page he has very clearly defined what he means by the Andes and the Cordilleras, so that we cannot possibly mistake the ranges of mountains mentioned at any time; and it is to be regretted that all writers have not taken like pains to avoid confusion. But in the Spanish language, "cordillera" means "a chain of mountains;" and one may say "cordillera de la costa” with the same propriety as "cordillera de los Andes." However, when Creoles speak of "la cordillera," they mean invariably the Andes.

Circumstances prevented Dr. Von Tschudi, when en route for Peru, from seeing much beyond the range of hills bounding the bay of Valparaiso; and the opinion of Dr. Darwin respecting the rivers of central Chile, quoted by him, may have been formed when the latter gentleman passed the Portillo line. It is evident he regarded this line as the main chain of the Andes, and was not aware that Aconcagua, Tupungato, and San José, all above 18,000 feet high, belonging to the same ridge, were to the westward of that which more recent examination proves to be only a spur from the actual dividing line of waters. True, he was within twenty miles of Tupungato, in an air-line; but till that time it had been considered about 15,000 feet high, and only a mountain traveller can tell how many disappointments attend views of distant objects.

It has already been stated that Chile, north of 33°, is a series of mountains, extending from the ocean to the Andes, without any continuous chain which could properly come within the definition of cordillera, as meant by Dr. Von Tschudi; but the Coquimbo, whose waters do continue to the Pacific, has its origin near the highest range of the Andes, eastward of the 70° of longitude, and thence works its way. From Chacabuco, south, we have seen that the * Five inches of rain fell at Santiago during twenty-four hours ending July 24, 1851, and more than three inches on the day following.

Andes are composed of separate ranges of mountains, three being sometimes distinctly visible between the plain and the highest range. Though there are anomalous portions, and, in some places, complete reversals of the geological structure usually found, geologists are satisfied that all these ranges belong to one epoch. These are separated from the central chain (the cordilleras of Dr. Von Tschudi) by a plain with an average breadth of fifteen to eighteen miles, sometimes expanded to thirty-five or thirty-eight, and at others narrowed to a few hundred yards. But the Andes and central chain never unite, and in every instance where they approximate to each other there is an interruption of the general declination of the plain from E.N.E. to W.S.W., and through every one of these angosturas (narrow gorges) there is a stream flowing from the southward and eastward. Its strata prove that the Central cordillera is older than the Andes, and the continuity of its line is quite as seldom interrupted. Westward of this, and south of the Rapel, the topography of the country is much the same as it is north of Chacabuco-successions of hills, with small intervening valleys, extending to the coast.

Now, I shall show that every river of consequence in Chile has its source not far from the highest summits of the Andes, traverses the intermediate plain in an average direction west by south, penetrates the Central cordilleras, and discharges its waters in the Pacific. Some few tributaries are exceptions to the law, and in one instance, (the Biobio,) they somewhat influence the course of the main stream after junction; but it originates in the Andes, and otherwise fulfils the rule. Commencing at the south, as we did with the lakes, on account of their greater volume, the Bueno is the first stream of any note. It is, however, necessary to apprize the reader that all the geographical information from the provinces of Valdivia and Concepcion, not excepting that published "by authority," must be received with many grains of allowance.

The Bueno has its source in Lake Ranco, in latitude 40° 16', longitude 72° 28', and after winding nearly west, through a very serpentine course, for about thirty miles, is joined by the Pilmayquen, flowing from the E.S.E., and which originates in Lake Puychue. The united waters of the two follow the direction of the main stream, without its contortions, twelve miles further. Here the Rahue, to which the excess of water in Lake Llanquihue has given birth, and its tributary, the Coihueco, springing from the base of Osorno, after flowing northwest nearly a hundred miles, falls into the Bueno just at the line of hills into which the Central cordilleras have degenerated. The distance from the junction of the Rahue to the ocean is above twenty miles, through nearly all of which the Bueno is navigable; and as rains in this section of the republic are not only frequent, but are also heavy at all seasons, the river is never low, as is often the case with those at the north.

The Valdivia, or Calle-calle, originates in Lake Huanchue, or, as M. Gay writes it, Guanegue. Its principal affluents from the southeast, the Colileufu and Quinchilco, have not the volume of the Rahue or Pilmay quen. These streams fall into it near longitude 72° 40′ west, and the course of the river, which from its source had been west by south, becomes more southerly. Fifteen miles from the ocean it is joined by the Cruces, an affluent of equal size, draining the valley to the northeast and west of the Andes; and the two are thence navigable to the estuary at its mouth, where ships may lie in greater security than in any other harbor on the whole coast. There is abundance of water for quite large vessels as far as the town of Valdivia, situated on the south bank, and near the confluence of the two rivers. Boats ascend as far as San José, 12 leagues further, with no greater difficulty than is encountered on the Maule; and there is no doubt, that under the management of the German colonists who have recently settled in the vicinity, the fertile lands of this province will soon attract more comA number of islands and forests of evergreens on the banks add much to the beauty of this stream.

merce.

The Tolten, principally alimented by the surplus water from Lake Villarica, after crossing the Indian territory, empties into the sea in latitude 39° 07'. Except the portion near the

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

21 coast, and in the immediate vicinity of the high road, very little is known respecting it; for, although the Indians raise cattle, cultivate fields, and dwell in houses far better than many of the lower class of Chilenos possess, their antipathy to all of Spanish descent is unmitigated, and the white man is not permitted to come among them. Travellers who pass between Concepcion and Valdivia state that the plains on its banks, at five leagues from the mouth, are highly fertile and exceedingly beautiful. Here its breadth does not exceed 150 yards, though the depth is sufficient for steamboat navigation, if a bar existing across its exposed mouth, and the Indians, would permit the entrance of such vessels to the heart of their country. Mr. Miers says there is no obstruction to the entrance of ships of the largest class.

The Imperial drains nearly all the sub-Andine valley between latitude 38° 06′ and the Tolten; but, though many parties of Spaniards have visited its banks, they have been too constantly harassed by the Araucanians to think of geography, and even less is known of it than of the latter. The Cauten, a tributary from the loftier Andes, joins the united volume of the north and northeast streams in latitude 38° 48', whence the whole volume flows, in a serpentine course, due west to the ocean. Several smaller streams empty into it between the confluence of the Cauten and the Pacific, at the junction of one of which, Las Damas, the early invaders founded the city of Imperial. Many a desperate encounter occurred in its vicinity; time after time was it burned, and now scarce a vestige remains. Here, at four leagues from the sea, there is water enough quite close to the shore for vessels of considerable tonnage. The breadth of the river is more than four hundred yards, and it has a scarcely perceptible current; indeed, the tide is said to ebb and flow more than twenty miles higher. Eight miles below, it divides into two branches, one, and the broader, continuing in a southwest direction; the other, a deeper though narrow current, turning to the northwest, empties into the sea amid scarped rocks. As the prevailing wind on the coast blows directly into the mouth of the larger volume, the sea heaps a bar of sand across it. All the country in the vicinity of the roads is described as fertile, and capable of producing wheat, vegetables, and fruits in profusion. The Biobio is, beyond question, the great river of Chile. No less than two considerable lakes, which receive the melted snows of very extensive basins within the Andes, and also a large number of tributaries draining western ravines of the same chain and more than 600 square miles of the eastern slope of the Central cordilleras, unite to form it. At their junction, the Laja, Duqueco, and Bergara, its three principal affluents, have each a breadth of from 400 to 500 yards, with an average depth exceeding a foot. Of the three, the first is best known, its cascade having made it quite notable. Its origin is in a lake of the same name, at the foot of the volcano of Antuco, this lake receiving a part of its waters from the cordilleras of Pichachen, eight miles further east, although Antuco, Sierra Belluda, and a range to the northward, form the culminating points of the Andes. Within the Andes, the Laja flows in a deep ravine, which it has worn through beds of sand and volcanic conglomerates; but on arriving near the centre of the plain, its stream is almost at the level of the latter, the immediate bed being also composed of like materials. The falls are at sixteen miles to the southeast of Yumbel, and not far from half-way across the great plain. No less than six different strata are visible in the gorge between the superficial bed and the base of the fall, their faces forming a vertical escarpment some sixty feet high, by 1,200 to 1,300 feet wide. Though on a much smaller scale, the water pours in a double fall, not unlike Niagara. Prof. Domeyko says that the vapor of water which moistens and separates the porous and friable underlying strata, is here producing an analogous effect to that of the waters of Niagara, which wear away the schists under the calcareous strata there; and the falls of the Laja are receding towards the Andes, precisely as those of Niagara are approaching Lake Erie. The volcano of Antuco, with its smoke and flame, and the Sierra Belluda, with its glaciers and banks of snow, add no little to the charm of the panoramic view; but apart from the fact that the picture is probably the most enchanting in all Chile, the spot is more than ordinarily interesting to the student of geology. On the southern branch of the same river, there are also two fine cataracts, highly attractive in them

selves, though scarcely comparable with the more imposing one just mentioned. Below the falls the two streams again unite, and have worn a deep and narrow channel in the solid rock, through which the volume rushes with great fury.

Originating on the slope dividing the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific, which is here to the westward of the Sierra Belluda, the Duqueco, after a west by south course of sixty miles, falls into the main stream not far from the western limit of the plain. The Bergara is the most southern tributary, its source being in latitude 38° 18'. Together with its affluents, it drains the plain between the Central cordilleras and the Biobio, joining the latter at Nacimiento, a small settlement in latitude 37° 26', and about two leagues below the mouth of the Duqueco. The Biobio commences in an outlet of Lake Gualletue, from whence its course, as far as the valley of Santa Barbara-forty miles-is nearly northwest. Across the plain, to the confluence of the Bergara, its direction is more westerly, and thence the three united streams proceed, in a north by west route, seven leagues further, to the Laja. From the last point to the oceanforty miles-the general direction is W.N.W., through an extremely fertile country-all its ravines, most of the hills, and a portion of the level fields between them being covered with fine timber. For two thirds of this distance the river, now more than a mile in width, flows majestically through the Central and Western cordilleras, in this latitude diminished to hills, none of which attain a greater elevation than 1,000 feet. From their rolling and diversified surface, large quantities of grain, wine, and timber are exported to the northern provinces; and were not the people of the district still apprehensive of the terrible aboriginal tribes—their neighbors to the south-it would inevitably become the most valuable part of the republic. That which seems most remarkable in the vegetation of this country, is the fact that forests do not exist either on the eastern slopes of the Central cordillera or the great plain; whilst the whole sub-Andine belt, as well as the entire region west of the first-named divisional line, is covered with grand Araucarias, Robles, Alerces, and Laurels, of various kinds, growing to the very surface of the water. At Concepcion the Biobio is a noble stream, nearly two miles wide, with abundant water for shipping, and it is navigable by boats as high up as Nacimiento; but, unfortunately, on account of the sand-banks across its mouth, and a heavy southwest swell very generally setting into it, it is not accessible from the ocean, except by small craft. To compensate for this somewhat, the Bay of Talcahuano is close by to the northward, and government has recently caused a survey to be made for a canal between the bay and river. The task was confided to Mr. Allan Campbell, a highly scientific and experienced engineer, whose report shows that such communication is practicable, and may be made at comparatively small cost. The Itata has its origin in the lower Andes, nearly 2,000 feet above the Pacific, and not far from the thirty-seventh parallel. This is the branch that preserves the name to its source, though the Ñuble, its principal affluent, has really greater extent and volume. Above the junction of the latter stream, several torrents from the mountains discharge their waters into it, and impart velocity to its otherwise sluggish current. A part of these are heated mineral waters issuing from a district several leagues in extent, between latitude 36° 15′ and 36° 27', longitude 71° and 71° 10'. From its head to the confluence of the Ñuble, by the winding of the river, the distance in a northwest direction is thirty leagues. The Ñuble is formed within the Andes at an elevation of 6,000 feet, partly by the copious streams of hot mineral water known as the sulphur baths of Chillan, and partly from the melting snows, whose summer line is scarce a thousand feet above them. As has just been stated, there is a large heated tract in this vicinity, some of the rocks being of such temperature that they scorch shoes or clothing remaining on them a few minutes, and for leagues around the air is poisoned by villanous emissions from fumarolas in many parts of it. The ridge which separates these waters from one of the sources of the Neuquen, a tributary of the Rio Negro, is about four leagues further east. From its western shed several small torrents descend to the Ñuble, from whose origin to the junction of the Itata the distance is thirty-five leagues, and thence to the ocean, in latitude 36°, thirteen leagues further. A number of smaller tributaries from the southward tend to