Castellated, built in imitation of an

ancient castle

Castellum, the receptacle in which the

water was collected and heated for the public baths of the Romans; a castle

Casting, among sculptors, the taking

casts of impressions of figures, busts, medals, leaves, &c. Casting of draperies: by this term is implied the distribution of the folds, and draperies are said to be well cast when the folds are distributed in such a manner as to appear rather the result of mere chance than of art, study, or labour. In that manner or style of painting, which is called the grand, the folds of the draperies should be great, and as few as possible, because their rich simplicity is more susceptible of great lights; but it is an error to design draperies too. heavy and cumbersome, for they ought to be suitable to the figures, with a combination of ease and grandeur. Order, contrast, and a variety of stuffs and folds, constitute the elegance of draperies; and diversity of colours in these stuffs contributes extremely to the harmony of the whole in historic compositions

Casting or Warping, in joinery, is the bending of the surfaces of a piece of wood from their original position, either by the weight of the wood or by an unequal exposure to the weather, or by the unequal texture of the wood Cast-iron framing, for mill-work, possesses great superiority over that of timber, for constructing the framing. It is not only much more durable, but, from the uniformity of its texture, may be converted into any shape, so as to give it great advantage in arranging the materials with respect to strength, and proportioning it to the stress it has to sustain

Cast-iron shoes for roofs. A practice has been recently introduced into the construction of roofs

having the beams of wood, of protecting their extremities from the damp and consequent decay to which they are liable, by resting immediately in contact with the brick, or stone work of the walls of the building. This is effected by what the workmen call cast-iron shoes, which are attached to the ends of the tie-beams by means of bolts, nuts, &c.

The iron shoe itself, of course, takes various forms, according to circumstances and the situation where it is introduced, and the particular views of the architect who employs it.

In cases where, from the nature of the work carried on, every part is exposed to great heat and moisture, the defence afforded by such an attachment is of great importance; the wood, unless thus protected, being of course very liable to decay in those parts where damp and moisture might accumulate Castle, a fortified and strong mansion, situated and constructed and arranged for the purpose of protecting its inmates against the assaults of enemies; in modern use, domestic residences of the nobility and gentry, without the necessity of being garrisoned by armed men Cat, the tackle used to hoist the anchor up to the cat-head

Catacombs, subterraneous vaults or excavations used as burying-places Catamaran, a name given both in the East and West Indies to some kinds of rafts, which are used in short navigations along the sea-shore Cataract, a contrivance applied to Cornish engines for regulating the number of strokes per minute: it consists of a small pump fixed on a cistern; the piston is raised at each stroke of the engine by a tappet on the plug-rod, and the water rises into the cylinder of the pump; it is then forced through a cock by means of counterweights attached to a cross-head on the pump pistonrod: when the water has been forced

back into the cistern, a series of levers, acting on a rising rod, loosen catches which allow weights to act, by means of levers, to open or shut the steam, equilibrium, and exhaust valves

Cataractes, a cataract, cascade, or sudden fall of water from a higher to a lower level; according to Pliny, a sluice, flood-gate, or lock in a river

Catch, a contrivance in machinery,

acting on the principle of a latch Catenary, in the higher geometry, a mechanical curve which a chain or rope forms itself into by its own weight, when hung freely between two points of suspension, whether these points be in the same horizontal plane or not Catgut, in turnery, the string which connects the fly and the mandril Cat-harpin, an iron leg used to confine the upper part of the rigging to the mast

Cat-head, in naval architecture, a large square piece of timber, one end of which is fastened upon the forecastle and the other end projects without the bow, so as to keep the anchor clear of the ship when it is being drawn up by a tackle Cathedra, according to Horace, a chair without arms; according to Juvenal, a chair with a long deep seat Cathedral, the principal church of a diocese, in which the bishop's throne is placed Cathedral (the very ancient) of Usumbar and other Armenian churches in Georgia have an arcade sur

rounding the outside of the building, of which the arches are in the flattened Gothic style: the same form prevails in the windows, doors, &c., in the body of the church. These structures are of an earlier date than any Gothic architecture in Italy Cathedrals. Very few of the Gothic cathedrals on the Continent have the tower or spire springing from the centre of the cross, and resting on four pillars, to balance the thrusts of the ranges of arches centering there; nor have those of Strasburgh, Ulm, Vienna, Orleans, or Antwerp. "The distribution of light in a Gothic cathedral is admirably adapted to the grandeur of the edifice, and produces that effect which a painter aims at in his picture. At the entrance at the west, the window being placed high, there is a low-toned light on the lower part of the pillars, and a shadow on the pavement, which, as we walk up the nave, graduates into light from the choir. The east window, always the broadest and the highest, pours in a greater body of light than is to be found in any other kind of building. The altar, rather in shadow, surrounded by this strong light, gives additional effect by contrast. The light from the transept windows is softened down by painted glass. The small windows, placed high along the aisles, enlighten their roofs, but the lower part of the pillars and floor remain in shadow." Cathedral churches of Great Britain:

Bath

Brechin

Bristol

Canterbury

Carlisle

Chester

Chichester

550

Do.

550

Somersetshire

Catherine-wheel, in architecture, an ornament that occurs in the upper part of the north and south transepts of ancient cathedrals Cathetus. The eye of the volute is so termed because its position is determined, in an Ionic or voluted capital, by a line let down from the point in which the volute generates Cat's-paw, a hitch made in a rope Cauliculus, the volute or twist under

the flower in the Corinthian capital Caulking, in naval architecture, the art of driving a quantity of oakum, i. e. old ropes untwisted and softened, into the seams of the planks, to keep out the water Caunter and Caunting, in Cornish

Worcestershire Yorkshire

mining, Contra: when two lodes run across, the one, with respect to the other, is called a counter or contra lode

Cautions in Architectural Construction.

UNION OF NEW AND OLD WORK.

In attaching any new work to a building, every allowance must be made for the sinking of the footings under pressure, and for the settlement of the masonry into itself. Thus, while it is necessary that a vertical groove, or indent, be made in the old work, to receive a corresponding piece of the new, it is still more essential that a freedom

UNION OF ASHLAR

FACING WITH BRICK OR RUBBLE BACKING.

The same caution required in the latter case must be here equally observed. The backing (composed of small material and much mortar) will settle more than the face; and the latter will consequently

bulge. This is easily remedied by computing, and allowing for, the difference of settlement; and by a due regard to the occasional bonding of the ashlar, so as to make the wall one substance, instead of two differently conditioned. The preceding sketch illustrates the consequence of weight pressing upon unbonded ashlar and upon yielding rubble.

in which the points A and A were prevented by the inverted arch from sinking with the points BB, which latter sunk the more from the pressure of the arch c in the direction of the dotted lines. It is not uncommon for the young architect to affect precautionary science, without a due consideration of the peculiar circumstances of his case.

DRAINAGE, ETC.

Always endeavour, if possible, to get your water-closet cess-pit outside the building, so that it may be approached for cleansing without disturbing the interior. Be careful in the efficient use of dipdraps to prevent the ascent of rats from the outer sewer into the drains which are under the floors of the house. Rats are destructive in their operations, and if they die in the drain, prove, for a length of time, an unbearable nuisance. Drains may serve every purpose of carrying off soil and water; but the slightest opening in their upper part will allow the escape of effluvia into the space under the ground flooring, and thence into the rooms, unless that space be thoroughly ventilated with grated openings, allowing a thorough draught,-or, at least, a free ingress of fresh air, and equal egress of foul. In the application of covered dry areas

round the excavated basements of buildings, on no account omit their entire ventilation. If this be not attended to, the main walling, which they are intended to preserve from damp, may remain even more continually moist than if in immediate connection with the natural ground. Moisture frequently rises up the walling from below its foundation, and, exuding from the face of the masonry, remains confined, unless it evaporate and escape. Without means to this end, a covered area will be merely a receptacle for damp, and may keep the masonry continually wet, even when the ground outside is perfectly dry. Be especially cautious that the water from the rain-pipes of the roofs and flats be not conducted by them into the foundations.

FIRE OPENINGS.

It will save much subsequent trouble and disturbance of masonry, to be assured as to the size and character of the stoves, grates, ranges, &c., which the proprietor will employ. In the kitchen and cooking-rooms, especially, precautionary care should be taken in suiting the openings to the intended apparatus. Do not forget to be prepared for a smoke-jack, &c.

DWARF WALLS.

In constructing these, do not omit the holes, &c., necessary for under-floor ventilation.

PAVING.

Be careful that the bottom, on which fine paving is laid, be dry and free from staining material. Common lime mortar is often injurious to pavements. Portland paving is especially liable to be disfigured by it.

WROUGHT STONE-WORK.

In putting wrought stone-work together, iron is to be avoided as the certain cause of its subsequent destruction. The stone cornices, architraves, and dressings of many a noble mansion have been brought

into premature ruin by the contraction and expansion of iron under the effects of cold and heat. But there are careless contractors who will allow their Corinthian capitals and fluted shafts to be ruined, even before the entablature surmounts them; and the young architect will not, therefore, omit to insert a clause in his specification, (and to be peremptory in its enforcement,) that all cut stonework be securely preserved, during the progress of the building, with wood casing. It is surprising how grossly indifferent each class of artificers is to the work of the others. It is still more surprising to observe how frequently they seem indifferent to the preservation of their own.

SLATING.

Get rid of the masons and plasterers and plumbers before your slaters begin. The injury done to slating by the afterwork of chimney-tops, &c., is much to be dreaded. The cementitious stopping' to a roof will not be efficiently done without close supervision: the ridge, hip, and valley courses will not be properly formed of large cut slates, nor will every slate have its two nails, unless the architect see to it.

PLASTERING.

Clear may be your specification in forbidding salt sand, but, if your work be carried on in the vicinity of any estuary, the chances are (unless you be deemed cruelly strict) that the surface of your internal walls will vary with the weather, from damp to dry, like a sea-weed, and throw out salt in abundance.

BEAMS, JOISTS, AND OTHER TIMBERS. LINTELS, BOND, PARTITIONS.

It is the office of walls to carry beams, &c.; and that of beams to stay the walls from falling outwards or inwards: but it is the duty of architects to see that the