§ 5. General Reflections and Obfervations on Beafts, Birds, Fishes, and other inferior parts of the Works of God. No part of nature is deftitute of inhabitants. The woods, the waters, the depths of the earth, have their refpective tenants; while the yielding air, and thofe tracts where man can never, but with much art and danger, afcend, are alfo paffed through by multitudes of the most beautiful beings of the creation. Every order of animals is fitted for its fituation in life: but none more apparently than birds. Though they fall below beafts in the fcale of nature, yet they hold the next rank, and far furpass fishes and infects, both in the structure of their bodies, and in their fagacity. The body of man prefents the greatest variety beafts lefs perfectly formed, difcover their defects in the fimplicity of their conformation: the mechanifm of birds is yet lefs complex: fishes are furnished with fewer organs still; while infects, more imperfect than all, fill up the chafm between animal and vegetable nature. Of man, the moft perfect animal, there are but three or four fpecies; the kinds of beafts are more numerous; birds are more various ftill; fifhes yet more; but infects afford an immenfe variety. As to the number of animals, the species of beasts, including alfo ferpents, are not very numerous. Such as are certainly known and clearly described, are not above an hundred and fifty. And yet probably not many that are of any confiderable bignefs, have efcaped the notice of the curious. The fpecies of birds, known and defcribed, are near five hundred, and the fpecies of fishes, fecluding fhell-fifh, as many but if the fhell-fish are taken in, above fix times the number. How many of each genus remain undiscovered, we cannot very nearly conjecture. But we may fuppofe, the whole fum of beafts and birds to exceed by a third part, and fishes by one half, thofe that are known. The infects, taking in the exfanguious, both terreftrial and aquatic, may for number vie even with plants themfelves. The exfanguious alone, by what Dr. Lifter has obferved and delineated, we may conjecture cannot be lefs, if not many more, than three thoufand fpecies. Indeed this computation feems much too low: for if there are a thousand fpecies in this island and the fea near it; and if the fame proportion hold between the infects natives of England, and thofe of the reft of the world; the fpecies of infects on the whole globe, will amount to ten thousand. Now if the number of creatures even in this lower world, be fo exceedingly great; how great, how immense must be the power and wisdom of him that formed them all! For as it argues far more skill in an artificer, to be able to frame both clocks and watches, and pumps, and many other forts of machines, than he could display in mak ing but one of thofe forts of engines: fo the Almighty declares more of his wisdom, in forming fuch a multitude of different forts of creatures, and all with admirable and unreproveableart, than if he had creat ed but a few. Again: The fuperiority of knowledge would be difplayed, by contriving engines for the fame purposes after different f fhions, as the moving clocks or other engines by fprings inftead of weights: and the infinitely wife Creator, has thewn by many inftances, that he is not confined to one only inftrument, for the working one effect, but can perform the fame thing by divers means. So though most flying creatures have feathers, yet hath he enabled feveral to fly without them; as the bat, one fort of lizard, two forts of fishes, and numberless forts of infects. In like manner, although the air bladder in fishes feems neceffary for fwimming; yet are many fo formed as to fwim without it, as first, the cartilaginous kind, which neverthelefs afcend and defcend at pleasure, although by what means we cannot tell: fecondly, the cetaceous kind: the air which they receive into their lungs, in fome meafure anfwering the fame end. Yet again: Though God has tempered the blood and bodies of moft fishes to their cold element, yet to fhew he can preferve a creature as hot as beats themselves in the coldest water, he has placed a variety of thefe cetaceous fishes in the northermor feas. And the copious fat wherewith their bodies is inclosed, by reflecting the internal heat, and keeping off the external cold, keeps them warm even in the neighbour hood of the pole. Another proof that God can by different means produce the fame effect, is the various ways of extracting the nutritious juice out of the aliment in vari ous creatures. In man and beasts the food, first chewed, is received into the ftomach, where it is concocted and reduced into chyle, and fo evacuated into the inteftines, where being mixed with the choler and pancreate juice, it is farther fubtilized, and rendered fo fluid, that its finer parts easily enter the mouth of the lacteal veins. In birds there is no chewing: but in fuch as are not carnivorous, it is immediately fwallowed into the crop, or anti-ftomach (which is obferved in many, especially pifcivorous birds) where it is moistened by fome proper juice, and then transferred to the gizzard, by the working of whose muscles, affifted by fmall pebbles, which they fwallow for that purpofe, it is ground finall, and so transmitted to the intestines. In oviparous reptiles, and all kind of ferpents, there is neither chewing nor comminution in the stomach, but as they fwallow animals whole, fo they void the fkins unbroken, having extracted the nutritious juices. Here, by the bye, we may obferve the wonderful delatibility of the throats and gullets of ferpents. Two entire adult mice have been taken out of the ftomach of an adder, whofe neck was no bigger than one's little finger. Fihes, which neither chew, nor grind their meat, do, by means of a corrofive juice in their ftomach, reduce skin, bones, nd all into chyle. And yet this juice thews no acidity to the tafte. But how mild foever it tastes, it corrodes all animal fubitances, as aqua fortis does iron. Several eminent men have been of opinion, that all brutes are mere machines. This may be agreeable enough to the pride of man; but it is not agreeable to daily obfervation. Do we not continually obferve in the brutes which are round about us, a degree of reafon? Many of their actions cannot be accounted for without it: as that commonly noted of dogs, that runting before their mafters, they will stop at the parting of the road, till they fee which way their masters take. And when they have gotten what they fear will be taken from them, they run away and hide it. Nay, what account can be given, why a dog being to leap on a table, which he fees he cannot reach at once, if a tool or chair tands near it, first mounts that, and thence proceeds to the table? If he were mere clock-work, and his motion caufed by a material fpring, that fpring being once fet to work, would carry the machine in a right line, towards the object that put it in motion. Were it true, that brutes were mere machines, they could have no perception of pleasure or pain. But how contrary is this, to the doleful fignifications they give, when beaten or tormented? How contrary to the common fenfe of mankind? For do we not all naturally pity them, apprehending them to feel pain just as we do? Whereas no man is troubled to fee a plant torn, or cut, or mangled how you pleafe. And how contrary to Scripture? A righteous man regardeth the life of his beaft: but the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel. Prov. xii. 10. The former claufe is ufually rendered, a good man is merciful to his beaft. And this is the true rendering, as appears by the oppofite claufe, that the wicked is cruel. Cruelty then may be exercised towards beafts. But this could not be, were they mere machines. The natural inftin&t of all creatures, and the special provifion made for fome of the moft helpless, do in a particular manner demonftrate the great Creator's care. Firft, What an admirable principle is the natural affection of all creatures toward their young! By means of this, with what care do they nurfe them up, thinking no pains too great to be taken for them, no danger too great to be ventured upon, for their guard and fecurity! How will they carefs them with their affectionate notes, put food into their mouths, fuckle them, cherish and keep them warm, teach them to pick and eat, and gather food for themfelves: and, in a word, perform the whole part of fo many nurfes, deputed by the fovereign Lord of the world, to help fuch young and fhiftless creatures till they are able to fhift for themselves. Other animals, infects in particular, whofe offspring is too numerous for the parent's provifion, are fo generated as to need none of their care. For they arrive immediately at their perfect state, and fo are able to fhift for themselves. Yet thus far the parental inftinct (equal to the moft rational forefight) extends, that they do not drop their eggs any where, but in commodious places, fuitable to their fpecies. And fome include in their nefts fufficient and agreeable food, to ferve their young till they come to maturity. And for the young themfelves: as the parent is not able to carry them about, to cothe them and dandle them, as men Y 4 doth: doth how admirably is it contrived, that they can foon walk about, and begin to fhift for themselves! How naturally do they hunt for their teat, fuck, pick and take in their proper food! On the other hand, the young of man, (as their parent's reafon is fufficient to help, to nurfe, feed and clothe them) are born utterly helplefs, and are more abfolutely than any creature caft upon their parent's care. Secondly, What admirable provision is made for fome of the moft helpless creatures, at a time when they muft other wife utterly perish! The winter is an improper feafon to afford food for infects and many other animals. When the fields, trees, and plants are naked, and the air is chilled with froft; what would become of fuch animals, whofe tender bodies are impatient of cold, and who are nourished only by the produce of the fpring or fummer? To prevent their total deftruction, the wife Preferver of the world has fo ordered, that, in the firft place, thofe who are impatient of cold, fhould have fuch a peculiar ftructure of body, as during that feafon not to fuffer any wafte, nor confequently need any recruit. Hence many forts of birds, and almost all infects, pafs the whole winter without any food: and moft of them without any refpiration. It feems all motion of the animal juices is extinct. For though cut in pieces they do not awake, nor does any fluid ooze out at the wound. This fleep therefore is little less than death, and their waking, than a refurrection: when the returning fun revives them and their food together. The next provifion is for fuch creatures as can bear the cold, but would want food. This is provided againft in fome, by a long patience of hunger, in others by their wonderful instinct, in laying up food before hand, against the approaching win ter. By fome of thefe, their little treafuries are at the proper feafon well stocked with provifions. Yea, whole fields are here and there befpread with the fruits of the neighbouring trees laid carefully up in the earth, and covered fafe by provident little animals. And what a prodigious act is it of the Creator's indulgence to the poor, fhiftlefs irrationals, that they are already furnished with fuch cloathing, as is proper to their place and bufinefs! with hair, with feathers, with fhells, or with firm armature, all nicely accommodated, as well to the element wherein they live, as to their feveral occafions there! To beafts, hair is a commodious cloathing; which, together with the apt texture of their fkin, fits them in all weathers to lie on the ground, ard to do their fervice to man. The thick and warm fleeces of others, are a good defence against the cold and wet, and also a foft bed: yea, and to many, a comfortable covering for their tender young. All the animals near Hudson's Bay are cloathed with a clofe, foft, warm fur. But what is ftill more furprising, and what draws all attentive minds to admire the wisdom and goodnefs of Providence is, that the very dogs and cats which are brought thither from England, on the approach of winter change their appearance, and acquire a much longer, fofter, and thicker coat of hair than they originally had. And as hair is a commodious drefs for beafts, fo are feathers for birds. They are not only a good guard againft wet and cold, but nicely placed every where on the body, to give them an eafy paffage through the air, and to waft them through that thin medium. How curious is their texture for lightnefs, and withal clofe and firm for frength! and where it is nece fary they fhould be filled, what a light, medullary fubitance are they filled with! fo that even the ftrongest parts, far from being a load to the body, rather help to make it light and buoyant. And how curiously are the vanes of the feathers wrought with capillary filaments, neatly interwoven together, whereby they are fufficiently clofe and ftrong, both to guard the body against the injuries of the wea ther, and to impower the wings, like fo many fails, to make strong impulfes on the air in their flight. No lefs curious is the cloathing of reptiles. How well adapted are the rings of fome, and the contortions of the skin of others, not only to fence the body fufficiently, but to enable them to creep, to perforate the earth, and to perform all the offices of their state, better than any covering! other Obferve, for instance, the tegument of the earth-worms, made in the compleate manner, for making their paffage through the earth, wherever their occafions lead them. Their body is made throughout of fmall rings, which have a curious appa ratus of mufcles, that enable them with great great ftrength to dilate, extend, or contraft their whole body. Each ring is likewife armed with ftiff, fharp prickles, which they can open at pleasure, or fhut close to their body. Latly, under their in there is a flimy juice, which they emit as occafion requires, to lubricate the body, and facilitate their paffage into the earth. By all these means they are enabled, with cafe and speed, to work themfelves into the earth, which they could not do, were they covered with hair, feathers, fcales, or tach cloathing as any of the other creatures. How wifely likewife are the inhabitants of the waters cloathed! The fhells of tome fishes, are a strong guard to their tender bodies, and confitent enough with their flow motion; while the fcales and fas of others afford them an eafy and fwift paffage through the waters. Admirable likewife is the fagacity of brate animals, in the conveniency and method of their habitations. Their architectonic fill herein exceeds all the skill of man. With what inimitable art do fome of thefe poor, untaught creatures, lay a parcel of rude ugly fticks or flraws toeather? With what curiofity do they life them within, yea, wind and place every hair, feather, or lock of wool, to guard and keep warm the tender bodies, both of themselves and their young! And with what art do they thatch over and coat their nefts without, to deceive the eye of the fpectators, as well as to guard and fence them against the injuries of the weather! Even infects, thofe little, weak, tender creatures, what artifts are they in buildig their habitations! How does the bee gather its comb from various flowers, the wafp from folid timber! With what ac curacy do other infects perforate the earth, wood, yea ftone itfelf! Farther yet, with what care and neatnefs do moft of them line their houfes within, and feal them up and fence them without! How artificially do others fold up the leaves of trees; others glue light bodies together, and make floating houfes, to tranfport themselves to and fro, as their various occafions require! Another inftance of the wifdom of Him that made and governs the world, we have in the balance of creatures. The whole furface of the terraqueous globe, can afford room and fupport, to no more than a determinate number of all forts of creatures. And if they should increase to double or treble the number, they must ftarve or devour one another. To keep the balance even, the great Author of nature hath determined the life of all creatures to fuch a length, and their increase to fuch a number, proportioned to their ufe in the world. The life indeed of fome hurtful creatures is long; of the lion in particular. But then their increase is exceeding fmall: and by that means they da not overstock the world. On the other hand, where the increafe is great, the lives of thofe creatures are generally fhort. And befide this, they are of great use to man, either for food or on other occafions. This indeed fhould be particularly obferved, as a fignal inftance of divine providence, that ufeful creatures are produced in great plenty: others in fmaller numbers. The prodigious increase of infects, both in and out of the waters, may exemplify the former obfervation. For innumerable creatures feed upon them, and would perith were it not for this fupply. And the latter is confirmed by what many have remarked: that creatures of little ufe, or by their voracioufnefs, pernicious, either feldom bring forth, or have but one or two at a birth. How remarkable is the deftruction and reparation of the whole animal creation! The furface of the earth is the inexhausti ble fource whence both man and beast derive their fubfiftence. Whatever lives, lives on what vegetates, and vegetables, in their turn, live on whatever has lived or vegetated: it is impoffible for any thing to live, without deftroying fome thing else. It is thus only that animals can fubfift themselves, and propagate their fpecies. God in creating the firft individual of each fpecies, animal or vegetable, not only gave a form to the duft of the earth, but a principle of life, inclofing in each a greater or fmaller quantity of organical particles, indestructible and common to all organized beings. Thefe pafs from body to body, fupporting the life, and miniftering to the nutrition and growth of each. And when any body is reduced to afhes, thefe organical particles, on which death hath no power, furvive and pafs into other beings, bringing with them nourish ment and life. Thus every production, every renovation, every increafe by gene ration or nutrition, fuppofe a preceding destruction, a converfion of fubftance, an acceffion of thefe organical particles, which ever fubfifting in an equal number, render nature always equally full of life. The total quantity of life in the univerfe is therefore perpetually the fame, And whatever death feems to deftroy, it deftroys no part of that primitive life, which is diffufed through all organized beings. Inhead of injuring nature, it only caufes it to fhine with the greater luftre. If death is permitted to cut down individuals, it is only, in order to make of the universe, by the reproduction of beings, a theatre ever crouded, a fpectacle ever new. But it is never permitted to deftroy the most inconfiderable fpecies. That beings may fucceed each other, it is neceffary that there be a deftruction among them. Yet like a provident mother, nature in the midst of her inexhauftible abundance, has prevented any wafte, by the few fpecies of carnivorous animals, and the few individuals of each species; multiplying at the fame time both the fpecies and individuals of those that feed on herbage. In vegetables the feems to be profufe, both with regard to the number and fertility of the fpecies. In the fea indeed all the fpecies are carnivorous. But though they are perpetually preying upon, they never destroy each other, because their fruitfulness is equal to their depredation. Thus thro' fucceffive ages ftands Let us add a few more reflections on the world in general. The fame wife Being, who was pleafed to make man, prepared for him alfo an habitation fo advantageoufly placed, that the heavens and the reft of the univerfe might ferve it both as an Ornament and a covering. He conftructed likewife the air which man was to breathe, and the fire which was to sustain his life. He prepared alfo metals, falts, and all terreftrial elements to renew and maintain throughout all ages, whatever might be on any account neceflary for the inhabitants of the earth. The fame Divine Ruler is manifeft in all the objects that compofe the univerfe. It is he that caufed the dry land to appear, above the furface of the ocean, gauged the capacity of that amazing refervoir, and proportioned it to the fluid it contains, He collects the rifing vapours, and caufes them to diftil in gentle fhowers. At his command the fun darts his enlivening rays, and the winds fcatter the noxious effluvia, which, if they were collected together, might destroy the human race. He formed thofe hills and lofty mountains which receive and retain the water within their bowels, in order to distribute it with economy to the inhabitants of the plains, and to give it fuch an impulfe, as might enable it to overcome the unevennefs of the lands, and convey it to the remoteft habitations. He spread under the plains beds of clay, or compact earths, there to flop the waters, which, after a great rain, make their way through innumerable little paffages. Thele sheets of water frequently remain in a level with the neighbouring rivers, and fill our wells with their redundancy, or as thole fubfide, flow into them again. He proportioned the variety of plants in each country, to the exigencies of the inhabitants, and adapted the variety of the foils, to the nature of those plants. He endued numerous animals with mild difpofitions, to make them the domeftics of man; and taught the other animals to govern themfelves, with an averfion to dependance, in order to continue their fpecies without loading man with too many cares. If we more nearly furvey the animal and vegetable world, we find all animals and plants have a certain and determined form, which is invariably the fame. So that if a monster ever appear, it cannot propagate its kind, and introduce a new fpecies into the univerfe. Great indeed is the variety of organized bodies. But their number is limited. Nor is it poffible to add a new genus either of plants of animals, to thofe of which God has created the germina, and determined the form. The fame Almighty power has created a precife number of fimple elements, effentially different from each other, and invariably the fame. By thefe he varies the fcene of the univerfe, and at the fame time prevents its deftruction, by the very immutability of the nature and number of thefe elements, fo that the world is for ever changed, and yet eternally the fame. Yet if we would account for the origin of |