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inches above the under side of the lower cap. The upper hoop is placed six inches below the upper cap, and three others are spaced at equal distances between the upper and lower hoops. These hoops, hhh, have all eye-bolts drove through them from the after side of the mast, and clenched on the fore side for the peak-halyards; their eyes lie horizontally; they are placed on the head for the upper and lower ones to be in the middle line on the after side of the mast, and the two between these an inch and a half on each side of the middle line. A hoop is also driven on the heel of the mast, about six inches above the shoulder of the tenon. There is a sheeve, s, in the mast-head for the top-rope; g, is the iron cap; d, the lower cap; e, the hounds-piece. The after side of the mast is coppered in the wear of the gaff and boom.

HEAD SAILS.

Fore-stay-sail, standing jib, and flying jib: these run on their respective stays, of which the first runs to the lower mast-head, and the other two to the top-mast-head, where their halyard-blocks must be placed. The down-haul blocks must be fastened to the outer lower corner of each, and the down-haul itself, being secured to the top of the sail and rove through its block, is to be belayed to a pin inboard. The jib-halyards and sheets, the only other gear on the head sails, are to be fitted as described under the head "sails of ships."

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KNOTS AND SPLICES.

The mode of forming ropes and cables is shown in Fig. 1. A number of fibres, a, are spun right-handed (with the sun, or from left to right) into the yarn, b. A number of yarns, varying according to the size and quality of the strand required (ropes made of small fine yarn are the strongest and best) are then twisted, left-handed, into the strand, c. Three strands laid together, right-handed, form the rope, d. (At e is the vacant space caused by the strand c being "unlaid" to show its structure.) This three-strand righthanded rope is the rope used for general purposes and for the "running rigging" of ships. For "standing rigging"-shrouds and stays-it is customary to use right-handed rope, composed of four strands laid round a fifth smaller strand, called the heart, which passes straight up the middle. Left-handed rope is sometimes met with, but not often. Ropes are built up in this way for the sake of getting the twist right and left alternately, which is the only way of preventing them from untwisting under strain. Without the twist the fibres would fall to pieces.

Three ropes like d, laid together left-handed, form the cable, f, the largest kind of rope. All left-handed rope is called cable-laid; but, strictly speaking, only nine-stranded rope like ƒ should be so called. Formerly, ordinary righthanded rope was called hawser-laid, but that term is obsolete or has come to mean the same as cable-laid."

There are many kinds of cord, such as window-sash lines, &c., which are not "laid," but "plaited," and are therefore in no sense rope. These cannot be spliced or made into the more complicated knots. Miniature rope, called humber-line, is about the smallest genuine laid rope, and is good for practising knots upon. The smallest rope so called by sailors is inch-rope, ¿.e., I in. in

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circumference, not diameter. Rope exposed to the wet should be made of yarns soaked in tar. This makes the neatest knots and splices, the fibres sticking together better, but it makes the fingers in a sad mess. Untarred rope is nearly as good for practising on.

String is composed of two or three yarns laid either way.

Spun-yarn is a kind of soft string, made by twisting, right-handed, two or three yarns from old rope.

Worming is filling up the channels between the strands of a rope, either to improve its appearance or to fit it for serving or parcelling (a, Fig. 2).

Parcelling is covering the rope with strips of old canvas soaked in tar to keep out the wet. Follow the "lay" of the strands from left to right (d, Fig. 2); then cover over or serve the parcelling with spun-yarn (b, Fig. 2), going against the lay, or from right to left. "Service" is also put on without parcelling, over a plain rope or over worming.

Marling is used instead of service to keep parcelling in its place. It is a kind of "chain-stitch" as known to ladies (c, Fig. 2). Work it towards you. Any bend or loop in a rope is called a bight, as a or b in Fig. 3. The standing part is that which is not bent about in forming the knot; the base, in fact, upon which the end-the part being manipulated-is worked. If you seize one of the bends of a coil of rope, and draw it out without finding the ends, you have hold of the "bight" of it.

The plain OVERHand Knot (Fig. 4) is the simplest of all. It is made at the end of a rope, to prevent it passing through a hole (as in sewing) or to prevent the strands from separating too far.

The FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT (Fig. 5) is better than the overhand, as it does not "jam" under strain and is easy to undo.

The BOAT KNOT or MARLINGSPIKE HITCH (Fig. 6) is simply an overhand knot, with the end held by a piece of wood instead of being taken through the bight. On withdrawing this the knot falls to pieces.

The BOWLINE is the best of all knots. It forms a loop which neither jams nor slips, and is easy to undo. Two ropes may be joined by a bowline at the end of each. It may be thrown over or made fast round a post, it forms a sling for a cask, and fifty other things. Having formed a bight as in Fig. 7, hold the crossing b in the right finger and thumb; with the left hand take the bight at a, and draw it over the end as in Fig. 8: being twisted by this operation, it tends to take the shape shown in Fig. 9; let it do so, but still keep the crossing in order between the finger and thumb; now draw out the end a little, and work it in as in Fig. 10; adjust the loop to the size required, and pull it tight.

A RUNNING BOWLINE is begun as in Fig. 11, taking c as the crossing and d as the bight described above. Fig. 12 shows it finished, -the best slip-knot known, free from any risk of jamming.

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FIG. 16.

FIG. 17.

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One merit of the bowline is that it can be made on a rope with one end fixed and out of reach; but it can even be made in the middle of a rope when there is no time to look for the ends. This is a bowline on a bight. When a sailor hears the cry, "Man overboard!" he seizes a bight in the first coil of rope he meets with, forms a bowline on it, and throws it to the drowning man in less time than it takes to describe it, because he is not detained looking for the end. Figs. 13 and 14, corresponding to 7 and 9, show that it is commenced as a common bowline, only with a double instead of a single rope; but instead of treating the looped end, e, like the end in Fig. 10, open it out and pass it round or behind the whole thing (see the dotted lines); then draw tight again, as in Fig. 15.

A BOWLINE WITH FOUR BIGHTS is made with two double ropes. It has four large loops, instead of the two in Fig. 15, and may be used, for instance, to support the different parts of a man's body while being drawn out of the water insensible.

Figs. 16 and 17 show two ways of slinging a cask, &c., in the loop of a single bowline. In Fig. 17 the rope must be arranged before the bowline is made. Fig. 18 is a simple running knot, but inferior to the bowline. It is often used for tying up parcels, when an overhand knot at a is made to prevent the end slipping through.

The HANGMAN'S KNOT is useful for the same and other purposes, and does

not jam so much, besides being more ornamental. Form bights as in Fig. 19; work the end round and round, as many times as you like, towards the loop a, Fig. 20; pass it through a; pull b so as to nip the end tightly in a (Fig. 21). When made with care this is a pretty knot.

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A rope may be secured to a post or spar by a bowline, as to the cask in Fig. 16, or by

The CLOVE HITCH or BUILDER'S KNOT, Figs. 22 and 23, which holds very tight, especially if the end is "seized" or "stoppered" down with spun-yarn, or secured to the standing part by a "half-hitch," as at a in the latter figure. You can form this knot either by twisting the end of the rope round the post, in the manner shown in Fig. 23, or by forming a double-loop as in Fig. 22, and passing the post or spar through the opening a, and then drawing tight. In either case the result is the same.

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The TIMBER HITCH (Fig. 24) holds tight while the strain is on, but not otherwise. It is useful in a hurry, and easily made.

The ROLLING HITCH (Fig. 25) holds so securely that a weight may be suspended by it from a perpendicular pole, or the pole may be slung by it in the same position. At a it is shown drawn tight. In Fig. 26 an extra turn is taken, which adds to the strength. There is also another more complicated form of the rolling hitch.

In all these figures the knot is drawn loose to show the structure.

The CAT'S-PAW (Fig. 27) is used for hitching the bight or any part of a rope

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to a hook, &c. Form two bights, twist them in opposite directions, and pass the hook through the loops. A weight may now be hung to either part of the rope. There are several cat's-paws, but this is the commonest.

The SHEEPSHANK or DOGSHANK (Fig. 28) explains itself. It is used for shortening ropes when it is undesirable to cut them to the length required. It comes apart again when the strain is removed.

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A BLACKWALL HITCH (Fig. 29), simple as it is, is a safe way of hanging a weight from a hook. The greater the weight the tighter the end is jammed against the hook, though there is no knot in it.

The neatest join for two ropes is the REEF KNOT, or RIGHT or TRUE knot. Twist the ends as in Fig. 30, then make an overhand knot as in Fig. 31. If the latter is twisted in the right direction, the ends will lie close as in Fig. 32; if not, they will stick out sideways. When this happens the knot is useless, and is called a "granny knot," or false knot. Neat as the true reef knot is, it is only suited for small ropes with no great strain on them: under much strain it jams and is difficult to undo. To join large ropes, hold one in the left hand as at a in Fig. 33; then work the other through in the direction of the arrow. This is the COMMON or SHEET BEND, or WEAVER'S KNOT. The reef knot is that used to join the ends of each pair of "reef points" in reefing a sail. Of course joining the two ends of a rope together is the same as joining two separate ropes. The weaver's knot is easy to undo, especially if made as in Fig. 34.

Fig. 35 is a CARRICK BEND, for joining two cables for towing ships, &c.; but a bowline bend is more general.

A permanent junction between two ropes should always be made by splicing. Fig. 36 shows the commencement of a

SHORT SPLICE.-Open out or unlay the strands, and "crutch" or inter-lock the ends (tightly, not loosely as in the drawing); take any strand, a, pass it

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