CHAPTER XIX.

AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF MINING AND METALLURGY.

Since the publication of my first report, in 1869, in which the subject of professional education was treated at some length, a great advance has been made in the facilities afforded by American schools and colleges, though nothing has been done by the Government, I regret to say, toward the establishing of a national school of mines. There are now some thirty institutions in this country, in the plans of which room is made for instruction in mining and metallurgy. Of course this department is not organized with equal thoroughness or furnished with equal liberality in all these cases; in too many of them trustees have added to the old curriculum merely a nominal course, because it was the fashion, and in order to attract students. But it is gratifying to know that a considerable number of these mining and technological schools mean business, and not show. Without intending to slight any which I omit, I have collected full information concerning some of the principal institutions east of the Rocky Mountains. There is an inchoate school in Colorado, and there is a promising department for this subject in the University of California; but these have had no chance, as yet, to show what they can do.

The schools to which I shall refer are, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (Boston;) the School of Mines of Columbia College, (New York;) the Sheffield Scientific School, (New Haven ;) the Stevens Institute of Technology, (Hoboken;) the Pardee Scientific Department of Lafayette College, (Easton;) the School of Mining and Metallurgy of Lehigh University, (Bethlehem ;) the School of Mining and Practical Geology, of Harvard University, (Cambridge;) the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, (Troy ;) the Scientific Department of the University of Pennsylvania, (Philadelphia;) the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, (Rolla;) and the Polytechnic Department of Washington University, (Saint Louis.)

THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.

Officers of instruction.-John D. Runkle, Ph. D., LL. D., President; John D. Runkle, Ph. D., LL. D., Walker Professor of Mathematics and Mechanics; William Watson, Ph. D., Professor of Mechanical Engineering; John B. Henck, A. M., Hayward Professor of Civil and Topographical Engineering; William R. Ware, S. B., Professor of Architecture; William P. Atkinson, A. M., Professor of English and History; George A. Osborne, S. B., Professor of Mathmatics, Astronomy, and Navigation; Alfred P. Rockwell, A. M., Professor of Mining Engineering; Edward C. Pickering, S. B. Thayer Professor of Physics; Samuel Kneeland, A. M., M. D., Professor of Zoology and Physiology; John M. Ordway, A. M.,* Professor of Metallurgy and Industrial Chemistry; James M. Crafts, S. B., Professor of Analytical and Organic Chemistry; Robert H. Richards, graduate of the Institute, Professor of Mineralogy and Assaying, in charge of the Mining and Metallurgical Laboratory; Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL. D., Professor of Geology; George H. Howison, A. M., Professor of Logic and the Philosophy of Science; S. Edward Warren, C. E., Professor of Descriptive Geometry, Stereotomy, and drawing; Professor of Modern Languages; Henry L. Whiting, United States Coast Survey, Professor of Topography; Henry Mitchell, A.M., United States Coast Survey, Professor of Physical Hydrography; Alpheus Hyatt, S. B., Custodian of the Boston Society of Natural History, Professor of Paleontology; Lewis B. Monroe, Professor of Vocal Čul

* The instruction in botany is at present given by Professor Ordway.

ture and Elocution; Willliam H. Niles,'Ph. B., A. M., Professor of Physical Geology and Geography; William Ripley Nichols, graduate of the Institute, Assistant Professor of General Chemistry; Charles R. Cross, graduate of the Institute, Assistant Professor of Physics; Ernest Schubert, Instructor in Free-Hand and Machine Drawing; Eugene Letang, Assistant in Architecture; John A. Whipple, Instructor in Photography; William E. Hoyt, graduate of the Institute,. Instructor in Civil Engineering and Drawing; Jules Lévy, Instructor in French, Spanish, and Italian; E. C. F. Kraus, Instructor in German; Edward K. Clark, graduate of the Institute, Instructor in Mechanical Drawing; Gaetano Lanza, S. B., C. E., Instructor in Mathematics; Foster E. L. Beal, graduate of the Institute, Instructor in Mathematics; G. Russell Lincoln, graduate of the Institute, Instructor in General Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis; Charles F. Stone, graduate of the Institute, Instructor in Quantitative Analysis; Hobart Moore, Instructor in Military Tactics.

Summary of students.-Resident graduates, 3; fourth year, 17; third year, 33; second year, 39; first year, 91; students not candidates for a degree, 81; total, 264, for the year 1871-'72.

Courses of study.-The regular course in the department of geology and mine engineering extends over four years, and the range of studies pursued is indicated by the following scheme of instruction:

FIRST AND SECOND YEARS.

Mathematics.-Algebra; solid geometry; mensuration; plane trigonometry and spherical trigonometry; analytic geometry; elements of the calculus. Surveying.-Field-work; plotting surveys; computing areas; plans.

Physical and industrial geography.

Physics.-Mechanics of solids, liquids, and gases; sound; light; heat; magnetism;

electricity.

· Chemistry.-Qualitative analysis; chemistry, organic and inorganic.

French; German; English; descriptive geometry; mechanical and free-hand drawing.

THIRD YEAR.

Civil engineering.-Survey and construction of roads aud railways; measurement of earth-work and masonry; field practice.

Mathematics.-Differential and integral calculus; analytic mechanics.

Applied mechanics.-Stress; stability; strength and stiffness.
Geology.-General descriptive, and theoretical geology.

Zoology and palæontology.

Mining.-Ore-deposits; prospecting; boring; sinking shafts, &c.; methods of

mining.

Mineralogy.-Descriptive and determinative; crystallography; use of the blow-pipe. Chemistry.-Lectures and laboratory practice in quantitative analysis.

Assaying.-Wet and dry ways.

Metallurgy.-Metallurgical processes; constructions and implements.

Physics.-Laboratory practice.

English and constitutional history; French or Spanish; drawing.

FOURTH YEAR.

Mining.-Ventilation; winding machinery; underground transport; pumps; dressing and concentration of ores; practice in mining-laboratory in ore-dressing. Economic geology.-Detailed description of American ore deposits and mines. Strength of materials and hydraulics.

Machinery and motors.-Hand-machinery; water-wheels; boilers; steam-engines. Chemistry.-Lectures and laboratory practice; synthetic experiments; quantitative

analysis.

Geology.-American geology; lithological, strategraphical, paleontological.

Chemical geology.-Origin of rocks, vein-stones, ore-deposits, coal, petroleum, &c. Metallurgy, practical lithology, and building-materials; physics.

Drawing.-Geological maps and sections; plans of mines; mining-machinery and

implements.

English literature; political economy; French or Italian; German.

The four years' course is so arranged as to secure to the student a liberal mental development and general culture, as well as the strictly technical education, which is his chief object. The studies of the first and second years are somewhat. general in character, but are regarded as a necessary foundation for the more special studies of the two succeeding years. The special professional studies peculiar to this department commence with the third year. Instruction is given by lectures and recitations, and by practical exercises in the field, the laboratories, and the drawing-rooms. In most of the

subjects problems are given the students to be worked outside the lecture-room. A high value is set upon the educational effect of these practical exercises.

The space devoted to laboratories and the prominence given to laboratory work, in physics, chemistry, assaying, blow-pipe analysis, metallurgy, and ore-dressing, is a marked feature in the scheme of instruction of the institute. It is believed that this school offers unusual facilities in this regard. The chemical laboratories cover 4,000 square feet; the mining, metallurgical, and assay laboratories, 2,000 square feet; the blow-pipe laboratory, 550 square feet; the physical laboratories, 3,500 square feet; and the drawing-rooms 8,556 square feet.

A course of thirty lectures on physical geology and geography is given to the students of the second year by Professor Niles. The study of the surface of the earth, of its external features, their origin and modifications, is essentially the subject of this course. A proper knowledge of the surface includes necessarily a corresponding acquaintance with the arrangement of rock-masses, in so far as they have determined the character of the surface features, and especially the geological agencies which are constantly producing the changes of the surface. The aim of the instruction, therefore, is to present clearly the most important relations between surface features and underlying geological formations and to show the action of the great dynamical forces, or, in other words, to teach physical geography and physical geology in their natural relations. The knowledge of these relations becomes of great practical value in determining the extent or even probable occurrence of certain ore-bearing rocks and of coal-beds in certain districts, since, where the rocks are completely covered by soil, the topographical features may be the only guide in "prospecting."

EXERCISES, THIRD AND FOURTH YEARS.

Descriptive and Theoretical Geology-30 lectures by Professor Hunt. American Geology-30 lectures by Professor Hunt. Practical Lithology and Building-Stones15 lectures by Professor Hunt. Chemical Geology-15 lectures by Professor Hunt. Mining-70 lectures by Professor Rockwell. Economic Geology-20 lectures by Professor Rockwell. Paleontology-50 lectures by Professor Hyatt. Metallurgy-40 lectures by Professor Ordway. Industrial Chemistry-40 lectures by Professor Ordway. Quantitative Analysis-40 lectures by Professor Crafts. Chemical Laboratory Practice10 to 15 hours a week, by Professor Crafts. Assaying, dry way-10 exercises (24 hours each) by Professor Richards. Blow-pipe and Determinate Mineralogy-45 exercises (1 to 2 hours each) by Professor Richards. Descriptive Mineralogy-15 lectures by Professor Richards. Mining and Metallurgical Laboratory Practice-10 hours a week. Physical Laboratory Practice-3 hours a week, 1 year, Professor Pickering. Calculus -50 lessons by President Runkle. Mechanics-50 lessons by President Runkle. Civil Engineering-40 lessons by Professor Henck. Strength of Materials and Hydraulics -40 lessons by Professor Watson. Machinery and Motors-25 lessons by Professor Watson. Natural History-25 lectures by Professor Kneeland. French-2 hours a week. German-2 hours a week. English-2 hours a week. Drawing-3 to 6 hours a week.

Geology, Lithology, &c.-The instruction in geology and certain related subjects is given by Professor Hunt, in four courses, delivered yearly to students of the third and fourth years. The first is a yearly course of thirty lectures on descriptive and theoretical geology. This embraces the classification of the related sciences; scope of geological studies; nature of rocks, or lithology; stratigraphy; succession of formations; zoological history; geological dynamics; chemical and physical forces; aqueous and igneous agencies; currents; sedimentation; elevation and subsidence; geographical distribution of formations; nature and origin of mountains; volcanic action. The second is a yearly course of thirty lectures on American geology, comprising introduction; geological history; geology of North America, considered lithologically, stratigraphically, and paleontologically; comparative geognosy. The third is a yearly course of fifteen lectures on practical lithology, comprising mineralogical composition of rocks; building-stones, their cohesion, porosity; granites, marbles, limestones, sandstones, slates, &c.; limes, cements, and mortars; ornamental stones and gems. The fourth is a yearly course of fifteen lectures on chemical geology, or the chemical history of the globe; comprising the origin of rocks, both stratified and unstratified; the history of veinstones and ore-deposits; the formation of coal and petroleum; the chemistry of salt-deposits and of mineral-waters; the seat and origin of volcanic and earthquake phenomena.

Mining and Economic Geology.-The instruction in mining and in economic geology is given by Professor Rockwell, in two yearly courses, delivered to students of the third and fourth years. The first is a yearly course of seventy lectures on mining. The student is made acquainted with the general character of the various deposits of the useful minerals, and with the theory and practice of mining operations, such as the methods of search or "prospecting;" boring for oil, coal, or water; the sinking of shafts, with the timbering, walling or tubing of the same; the driving of levels; the

different methods of working lodes, coal-beds, &c.; the underground transportation of the mineral; hoisting, pumping, ventilation, and lighting, together with the machinery and other appliances connected with these and other operations; in short, the great variety of operations comprised under the general term "exploitation." Ore-dressing, or the mechanical separation of ores from their gangues, is discussed somewhat at length, and the machines described by means of which this concentration is most economically effected. The practical course of ore-dressing and smelting in the mining and metallurgical laboratory affords the student opportunities for acquiring a familiar knowledge of the treatment of ores, such as can be got under ordinary circumstances only at the best mines. The second is a yearly course of twenty lectures on economic geology, mainly devoted to a detailed description of the coal and ore deposits of North America, especially such as are most extensively worked.

The student who is a candidate for the degree of the institute is expected to spend a portion of his vacations in some one of the principal mining districts in the study of the local peculiarities of the ore-deposit, and the details of actual working, and to submit a full report upon the same, with drawings. Those who intend to become metallurgists may take smelting-works instead. Through the kindness of several owners, certain mines in different regions have been made accessible to students for the purpose of systematic study.

Metallurgy and Industrial Chemistry.-The instruction in metallurgy and in industrial chemistry is given by Professor Ordway, in two two-years' courses, delivered to students of the third and fourth years. The first is a two years' course of forty lectures on metallurgy. The subjects discussed are fuels, fluxes, slags, furnace-construction, and the roasting, smelting, and refining of the various metals. The second is a two years' course of forty lectures on industrial chemistry. The manufacture of acids, alkalies, salts, pottery, glass, and organic products, and the arts of dyeing and printing, are the principal subjects treated. In connection with these lectures excursions are made to manufactories and metallurgical works, and practical exercises are given in the laboratories. The students are required to make drawings and designs of apparatus used or to be used in large operations.

Mining and Metallurgical Laboratory.-The purpose of this laboratory is to furnish the means of studying experimentally the various processes of ore dressing and smelting. Ores of all kinds are here subjected to precisely the same treatment, and by the same machinery and other appliances that are in use at the best mines and metallurgical works of this and other countries. The laboratory has already in successful operation the most approved ore-dressing and mill machinery for gold and silver ores now in use in California and Nevada, consisting of a five-stamp battery, an amalgamating-pan, a separator, and a concentrator, complete in every respect and capable of treating half a ton of ore a day. These were obtained the past summer in San Francisco. There will be added during the present year an ore-crusher, a hydraulic jigger, a Rittinger shakingtable, and all other appliances necessary for the treatment of every kind of ore. The machinery is driven by a steam-engine of upward of 15 horse-power. For metallurgical treatment the laboratory contains at present a reverberatory roasting-furnace, crucible and assay furnaces, and a blacksmith's forge; and there are now being erected reverberatory and blast smelting-furnaces capable of working 400 pounds of ore per day, and a cupelling-furnace sufficient for working 50 pounds of lead at once. To these All of these will be will be added retort and other smaller furnaces for various uses. ready for use by October of the present year.

The experimental work of this laboratory is carried on by the students under the immediate supervision of Professor Richards. A sufficiently large quantity of ore is assigned to each student, who first samples it, and determines its character and value by analysis and assays, and makes such other preliminary examinations as serve to indicate in a general way the proper method of treatment. He then treats the given quantity, makes a careful examination of the products at each step of the process, ascertains the amount of power, water, chemicals, fuel, and labor expended. In this way the same ore is subjected to several methods of treatment, and by a comparison of the results obtained, the student learns the relative effectiveness and economy of different methods as applied to the same ore. It is believed that the experiments conducted in this way and upon such a scale, will prove of direc tpractical value not only to the student, but to the mining interest at large, by showing how existing methods of treatment may be advantageously modified to meet the requirements of new complex ores. The institute has now on hand about eleven tons of gold and silver ores, representing over seventy different mines in Colorado and Utah, which were collected by the institute party of professors and students during their recent trip to these Territories. These ores will be worked and reports of the results sent to those who so generously contributed them; and it is hoped that by such co-operation the laboratory will continue to receive the necessary amount and variety of ores.

Paleontology.-The instruction in paleontology is given in a yearly course of sixty lectures, by Professer Hyatt, half of which are delivered to the third year and half to the fourth year students. Palæontology, or the history of ancient animal life, and

stratigraphical paleontology, or the study of the distinctive and characteristic fossils of the different formations, are taught as a necessary foundation for the further study of geology. The aim of the course is to give the student a practical acquaintance with the structure of the characteristic families and orders of living and extinct animals, and by a judicious selection of examples to familiarize him to some extent with the genera which characterize various formations. The handling and drawing of specimens by the students is an essential feature of the method of instruction. The lecture of the instructor is devoted largely to explanatory demonstrations of the specimens, which the students are at the same time drawing. The success attending this mode of teaching palæontology has shown its value.

Mineralogy and blow-pipe practice. The instruction in mineralogy and the use of the blow-pipe is given by Professor Richards, in two courses to students of the third year. The first is a course of forty-five exercises, (one to two hours each,) in which the student is taught determinative mineralogy by the study of crystalline forms, and the physical properties of minerals. He is instructed in the use of the blow-pipe in the qualitative determination of minerals, and in the quantitative assay of silver and copper ores. The second is a course of fifteen lectures on descriptive mineralogy, accompanied by a critical examination and handling of specemens on the part of the student.

Assaying. The instruction in assaying is given by Professor Richards in a course of ten exercises, (two to three hours each,) in which the student learns to perform the ordinary dry assays of gold, silver, lead, and other ores. Instruction in wet assaying is given by Professor Crafts.

Chemical course for mining engineers.-The chemical instruction of the mining students extends through the four years. The course in general chemistry occupies the first year; and during this time the students work two hours each week in the chemical laboratory. Each student performs for himself a great variety of experiments designed to illustrate the properties of the various chemical elements, and of their more important compounds; he also prepares a number of such simple and compound substances as are of use in the arts or serve to illustrate the laws of chemical change. The knowledge thus acquired by the practical work of the laboratory is supplemented and enforced by lectures, recitations, and frequent examinations. During the second year more particular attention is given to the theory of chemistry and to qualitative analysis. The latter branch of the subject is taught by laboratory exercises, each student working four hours a week. As during the first year's course, these laboratory exercises are accompanied by recitations and examinations. During the third year the mining students take a systematic course of quantitative analyses, occupying six hours per week in the laboratory, and attend a weekly lecture, or exercise, in which methods of analysis are discussed, and the results of investigations too recent to be found in textbooks are presented to them. Mining students may take in addition, as a voluntary exercise, a course of special analytical methods, reciting from German text-books. In the fourth year the students are engaged in laboratory work during the hours between 9 a. m. and 5 p. m., which are not devoted to recitations and problems in drawing, metallurgy, &c., which more nearly concern their professional studies. They all get about three hours daily for chemical work, and many are able to spend more time in the laboratory without neglect of their other studies. They accomplish a tolerably thorough analytical course, comprising the analyses of salts, the more common minerals, and particularly of ores and metallurgical products, and extending as far as the more difficult analyses, such as the determination of all the constituents of cast iron or steel, so that a student in his professional work as a mining engineer may be independent of the assistance of a chemist, and competent to deal with all ordinary investigations. Some students, who show a special aptitude for chemistry, are encouraged to take up special investigations connected with metallurgy, and all accomplish work which may be considered a sufficient preparation for their professional career.

Physics.-The instruction in physics, extending through the first three years of the course, is given by Professor Pickering. During the first two years the whole subject is thoroughly discussed mathematically and experimentally in lectures illustrated from the extensive collection of physical apparatus of the institute.

In the third year the students enter the physical laboratory and learn to use the different instruments and to perform a variety of experiments. Special attention is paid to the testing of physical laws, by comparing the observed and computed results. They further carry on systematic investigations of particular subjects during the fourth year, and pursue such courses of experimentation as have a direct bearing an their professional studies.

Collections.-The geological collection of the late Professor Henry D. Rogers, of the University of Glasgow, presented to the institute by Mrs. Rogers, is made up chiefly of fossils and rock-specimens from American localities, and in certain branches is peculiarly valuable for instruction. The collection of ores and veinstones is already large and varied, and is constantly receiving additions from the various mining regions.

A typical set of models of mining-machinery, chiefly from Freiburg, Saxony, is used in the course of instruction. They are designed mainly to illustrate the principles of the