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extended the influence of France among the dynasties of Europe. These, and some minor causes, impelled England again to declare war against France.' Hostilities commenced in 1702, and continued until a treaty of peace was concluded at Utrecht, in Holland, on the 11th of April, 1713. As usual, the French and English in America were involved in this war; and the latter suffered much from the cruelties of the Indians who were under the influence of the former. This is known in America as

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR.

It was a fortunate circumstance for the people of New York that the FIVE NATIONS had made a treaty of neutrality with the French in Canada [Aug. 4, 1701], and thus became an impassable barrier against the savage hordes from the St. Lawrence. The tribes from the Merrimac to the Penobscot had made a treaty of peace with New England, in July, 1703, but the French induced them to violate it; and before the close of summer, the hatchet fell upon the people of the whole frontier from Casco to Wells. Blood flowed in almost every valley; and early the next spring [March, 1704], a large party of French and Indians, under Major Hertel de Rouville, attacked Deerfield, on the Connecticut River, applied the torch,' killed forty of the inhabitants, and carried one hundred and twelve away to the wilderness. Among these was Rev. John Williams, the minister, whose little daughter, after a long residence with the Indians, became attached to them, and married a Mohawk chief.3 Similar scenes occurred at intervals during the whole progress of the war. Remote settlements were abandoned, and the people on the frontier collected in fortified houses, and cultivated their fields in armed parties of half a dozen or

more.

WILLIAMS'S HOUSE.

This state of things became insupportable to the English colonists, and in the spring of 1707, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, determined to chastise the French on their eastern borders. Connecticut refused to join in the enterprise, and the three colonies alone prepared an armament. Early in June, a thousand men under Colonel Marsh, sailed from Nantucket for Port Royal,5 in Acadie, convoyed by an English man-of-war. The French were prepared for them, and nothing was effected except the destruction of considerable property outside the fort. Three years later, an armament left

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It is known in European history as the War of the Spanish Succession.

The only house that escaped the flames was that of the Rev. John Williams, represented in the engraving. It stood near the centre of the village, until within a few years.

Mrs. Williams and other captives, who were unable to travel as rapidly as the Indians, wero murdered. On his arrival in Canada, Mr. Williams was treated with respect by the French, and after two years of captivity, was ransomed, and returned to Massachusetts. The chief object of the expedition to Deerfield, appears to have been to carry off the bell that hung Williams's church. That bell was purchased the year previous for the church of Saut St. Louis, at Caughnawaga, near Montreal. The vessel in which it was brought from Havre was captured by a New England privateer, and the bell was purchased for the Deerfield meeting-house. Father Nicolas, of the church at Caughnawaga, accompanied the expedition, and the bell was carried in triumph to its original destination, where it still remains. Note 1, page 127. Page 58.

Boston [September, 1710], and, in connection with a fleet from England, under Colonel Nicholson, demanded and obtained a surrender of the fort and garrison [Oct. 13], at Port Royal. The name of the place was then changed to Annapolis, in honor of the Queen, Anne, and Acadie was annexed to the English realm under the title of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland.

In July, the following year [1711], Sir Hovendon Walker arrived at Boston, with an English fleet and army, designed for the conquest of Canada. New England promptly raised additional forces, and on the 10th of August, fifteen men-of-war and forty transports, bearing almost seven thousand troops, departed for the St. Lawrence to attack Quebec. Walker, like Braddock," haughtily refused to listen to experienced subordinates, and lost eight of his ships, and almost a thousand men, on the rocks at the mouth of the river, on the night of the 2d of September. Disheartened by this calamity, Walker returned to England with the remainder of his fleet, and the colonial troops went back to Boston. On hearing of this failure of the naval expedition, a body of troops marching from Albany to attack Montreal, retraced their steps." Hostilities were now suspended, and in the spring of 1713, a treaty of peace was concluded [April 11] at Utrecht. The eastern Indians sent a flag to Boston, and sued for peace; and at Portsmouth the Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire entered into a pacific compact [July 24] with the chiefs of the tribes.

A long peace now ensued, and for thirty years succeeding the close of Queen Anne's War, the colonists enjoyed comparative repose. Then, again, the selfish strifes of European monarchs awakened the demon of discord, and its bloody footsteps were soon apparent along the northern frontiers of the English colonies in America. The interim had been a period of much political agitation in Massachusetts, during which a great stimulus had been given to the growth of republican principles. Disputes, sometimes violent, and sometimes in a conciliatory spirit, had been carried on between the royal governors and the representatives of the people; the former contending for prerogatives and salaries which the people deemed inadmissible. These internal disputes were arrested when they heard that France had declared hostility to England [March 15, 1744], and the colonists cheerfully prepared to commence the contest known in America as

KING GEORGE'S WAR.5

This war was not productive of many stirring events in America. The principal and very important one was the capture of the strong fortress of

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1 King William had no children; and Anne, the daughter of James the Second (who was married to Prince George of Denmark), succeeded him as sovereign of England in 1702. Page 186. These were four thousand in number, under the command of General Nicholson. They were furnished by New York and Connecticut.

The chief topic of controversy was the payment of salaries. Governors Shute, Burnet and Belcher, all contended for a permanent salary, but the people claimed the right to vote such salary, each year, as the services of the governor appeared justly to demand. A compromise was finally effected by an agreement to vote a certain sum each year. The subject of salaries was a cause of contention with the royal governors, until the Revolution.

The husband of Queen Anne died several years previous to her death, which occurred in August, 1704. George, Elector of Hanover, in Germany, was immediately proclaimed King of

Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. It had been constructed by the French after the treaty of Utrecht, at an expense of five and a half millions of dollars, and because of its strength, was called The Gibraltar of America. William Shirley,' a soldier and energetic statesman, was Governor of Massachusetts when hostilities were proclaimed. He immediately perceived the importance of Louisburg in the coming contest, and plans for its capture were speedily perfected by the Legislature of Massachusetts. Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut furnished their proper quota of troops. New York sent artillery, and Pennsylvania provisions. Thus common danger was extending the idea of a necessity for a union of the Anglo-American colonies, long before it assumed a practical form in 1754.'

After vainly waiting for some time in the expectation of aid from Commodore Warren (then in the West Indies), the colonial forces, thirty-two hundred strong, under the general command of William Pepperell, sailed [April 4, 1745] for Louisburg. At Canseau they were unexpectedly joined by the fleet of Warren [May 9], and on the 11th of May the combined forces, four thousand strong, landed at Gabarus Bay,

a short distance from their destination. The sudden appearance of this formidable armament, was the first intimation to the French, that an attack

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CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG IN 1745.

was meditated, and great consternation prevailed in the fortress and town.

England, by the title of George the First. His son George succeeded him in 1727, and also retained the title and privileges of Elector of Hanover. A contest arose between Maria Theresa,

Empress of Austria, and the Elector of Bavaria, for the throne of Austria. The King of England espoused the cause of the empress, in 1743, and the King of France took part with her opponent. This led France to declare war against England-a contest known in America as King George's War, but in Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession.

'William Shirley was born in England; made governor of Massachusetts in 1741; was afterward made governor of one of the Bahama Islands, and died at Roxbury, near Boston, in 1771. He appears conspicuous in history during a portion of the contest known in America as The French and Indian War.

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Shirley proposed an expedition, but the Legislature hesitated. The measure was finally agreed upon by a majority of only one vote. Page 183. Pepperell was a native of Maine, and a wealthy merchant. He was afterward made a baronet. He died in 1759.

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Louisburg is on the east side of the island of Cape Breton, with a fine, deep harbor. The landing-place of the British, position of the camp, etc., will be seen by reference to the map. The Royal Battery was taken by four hundred men. When they approached, the French thought the whole English army was upon them. They immediately spiked their guns (that is, drove iron spikes into the touch-holes of the cannons, so as to make them useless), and fled In the upper part of the map is a profile of the fortifications at Louisburg. It is given here so as to illustrate certain terms which may be used hereafter: a, the glacis, is the extreme outside slope of the works; b, the banquet, or step upon which the soldiers stand to fire over the parapet; c, a covered way into the fort, under the banquet; d, counterscarp, a bank or wall, outside the ditch, e; f, the parapet, a protection for the men and guns from balls from without; g, the inner banquet; h, ramparts-the most solid embankment of the fortress; the last slope in the interior of the fort, called talus.

direct approach was difficult on account of a morass, and a combined attack by sea and land was carefully arranged. The land forces encamped in a curve in rear of the town, and detachments secured the French outposts, one after another. Cannons were dragged on sledges over the morass,' trenches were dug, batteries were erected, and a regular siege was commenced, on the 31st of May. In the mean while, Commodore Warren captured a French ship of seventy-four guns, and secured, as prisoners, over five hundred men, with a large quantity of military stores. While the siege was in progress, other English vessels of war arrived, and the fleet and army agreed to make a combined attack on the 29th of June. Despairing of successful resistance, the French surrendered the fortress, the city of Louisburg, and the island of Cape Breton, on the 28th of June, 1745.2

The pride of France was greatly mortified by this daring and successful expedition, and the following year [1746] the Duke D'Anville was sent with a powerful naval armament' to recover the lost fortress, and to desolate the English settlements along the seaboard. Storms wrecked many of his vessels, and disease soon wasted hundreds of his men; and D'Anville, thoroughly dispirited, abandoned the enterprise without striking a blow. Two years afterward a treaty of peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, in western Germany, when it was agreed that all prisoners should be released, and all acquisitions of property or territory, made by either party, were to be restored. Both of the principal parties were heavy losers by the contest; while the strength of the colonists, yet to be called forth in a more important struggle, was revealed and noted.

Old national animosities, religious differences, and recent causes for irritation, had inspired the English and French with intense mutual hatred, when the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed on the 18th of October, 1748. The allegiance of Massachusetts and its sister colonies to the British crown, and the acknowledged duty of obedience, restrained the resentment of the American people, while England and France were at peace. Soon, disputes about local boundaries began, and it was not long before preparations for war between the two races, were visible in America. Then came that final bloody struggle between the English and French, for dominion in the New World, known as the French and Indian War. This we shall consider hereafter.

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The artillery was commanded by Richard Gridley, who was the engineer of the continental army at Boston in 1775 and 1776. See page 234.

The prizes and stores obtained by the English amounted, in value, to little less than five millions of dollars.

It consisted of forty ships of war, fifty-six transports, thirty-five hundred men, and forty thousand muskets for the use of the French and Indians in Canada.

D'Anville, with two or three vessels, anchored at Chebucto (now Halifax, Nova Scotia), where he died, it is believed, by poison. His lieutenant also committed suicide, in consequence of mortified pride. These disasters to the French fleet were regarded by the people of New England as special manifestations of Providence in their favor. Public thanksgivings were offered; and no one doubted the right of the English to the whole of Acadie.

Parliament afterward reimbursed to the colonies the cost of their preparations against Canada, amounting to more than a million of dollars. See page 199. Page 179.

• Page 180.

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THE State of New York commenced its political career when Peter Minuit,' recently appointed Governor of New Netherland,' arrived at New Amsterdam (as the germ of the present city of New York was called), in May, 1626. He immediately purchased of the Indians, for about twenty-four dollars, the whole of the island of Manhattan,' on which the city of New York now stands, and began vigorously to perfect the founding of a State similar to those of Holland. He erected a strong fortification near the site of the present Battery, and called it Fort Amsterdam. By conciliatory measures, he gained the confidence of the Indians; and he also opened a friendly correspondence with the Puritans at Plymouth. The English reciprocated the friendly expressions of the Dutch; at the same time, they requested the latter not to send their trappers quite as far eastward as Narraganset Bay, to catch otters and beavers."

For the purpose of encouraging emigration to New Netherland, the Dutch West India Company' offered, in 1629, large tracts of land, and certain privileges, to those persons who should lead or send a given number of emigrants to occupy and till the soil. Directors of the company' availed themselves of the privilege, and sent Wouter (Walter) Van Twiller to examine the country and select the lands. Immigrants came; and then were laid the foundations of the most noted of the manorial estates of New York. The proprietors were called patroons (patrons), and held a high political and social station in the New World.

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The agent of the Patroons seems to have performed his duty well, and he was appointed governor of the colony, in 1633. The beginning of Van Twiller's administration was marked by difficulties with the English on the Con

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Page 72. 3 Note 1, page 48.

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2 Page 93. See picture on page 144. Page 78. • Trade in furs was the chief occupation of the Dutch of New Netherland at this time. They became expert trappers, and were seen as far east as Nantucket, and even Cape Cod. The trade soon became profitable to the Company. The first year's remittance of furs to Amsterdam was valued at $11,000. This trade greatly increased; and before the troubles with the Indians in 1640, the value of furs sent to Holland, annually, was more than $60,000. Page 72. * The land was to be fairly purchased of the Indians, and then the title was to be confirmed by the Dutch government. The privileges granted to the purchasers made them, in a degree, feudal lords [note 15, page 62], yet they were exempted from paying tribute to supreme authority.

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• Killian Van Rensselaer, who purchased a tract at Fort Orange (Albany); Samuel Godyn and Samuel Bloemart, who selected lands in West Jersey, on the Delaware; and Michael Pauw, whose domain included Jersey City and vicinity. See page 94.

10 Van Rensselaer. Immense tracts of land in Albany and Rensselaer counties, portions of the first Patroon's estates, are yet [1856] in possession of the family. Since 1840, many scenes of violence and bloodshed have been witnesssd on those lands, growing out of disputes with tenants, when they have been called upon to pay even the almost nominal rent which is demanded. Social and political questions have arisen, and produced two strong parties. The defense of the tenantry is termed Anti-Rentism. Conciliatory measures have been proposed by a purchaser of a large portion of the ancient manor, in Albany county, by which the tenants are allowed to buy the land, and obtain a title in fee simple. In time, the whole estate will thus pass into the hands of numerous new owners, and these angry disputes will become items of past history.

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