region, of animals that lay up provisions for winter; and, in the warmer region, by their absence. The contrast, however, is more striking than in America; owing to the intervention of the Alps and other mountains extending cast and west, which not only produce a sudden transition in the climate and vegetation suited to particular species, but also oppose an insurmountable barrier to their progress.

63. Taking a general survey of Europe, we observe that its land mammals present less variety than those of the other grand divisions, even within corresponding areas. Indeed, they are limited almost exclusively to three orders-the carnivora, rodents, and ruminants,—and

Questions.-Contrast, as compared with that in America, and why so? 63. Land mammals, as compared with those of the other grand divisions? Orders and families?

moreover include no family which is peculiar to its limits-as are the opossums to America or the vaulting cats to southern Asia.

64. The carnivora, however, comprise an unusual number of species; although at present they include none of the leading representatives of the cat genus-such as the lion, tiger, or panther of the adjacent grand division, or the puma and jaguar of America. The most formidable are the polar bear, the brown bear of the north, the Pyreneean bear, the wolf, lynx, and several wild cats. The other principal carnivora (a considerable share of which belong to the colder regions, and are valuable for their furs) are the glutton, badger, marten, fox, and otter. The common domestic cat is believed to be of European origin.

65. The chief rodents are the beaver, hedge hog, porcupine (limited to the southern fauna), hares and rabbits, squirrels, and seven species of the mouse family. Among the latter, are the lemmings of the cold regions, noted for their occasional migrations, and drowning, in iminense numbers, in the neighboring seas. The domestic rats and mice of Europe and America are derived from this quarter of the globe, having been unknown in the New World before its settlement by Europeans.

66. The order of ruminants includes the most important of the wild mammals of Europe. At the head of these stands the reindeer, the presence of which, in the Arctic regions, contributes so largely to the comfort and support of the inhabitants. In the cool temperate latitudes are the elk (nearly allied to the moose of America), the stag or red deer, and the roe; also, in many parts of central and southern Europe, the fallow deer-either ranging in its native freedom, or domesticated in public and private parks.

67. The wild mountain-regions of central and southern Europe are inhabited by the chamois (a species of antelope), the ibex, and the common goat. The chamois and ibex frequent only the lofty heights between the upper limit of trees and the line of perpetual snow.

68. Wild sheep are found in some parts of the southern mountainregions; and the urus or wild ox (a race now nearly extinct) in the forest tracts southeast of the Baltic. These animals are believed to have come originally from Asia; and, by some writers, are supposed to be the parent stock of the domestic sheep and cattle now common in Europe and America.

Questions.-64. Species of carnivora, and what of the cat genus? Most formidable carnivora? Other principal ones? Domestic cat? 65. Chief rodents? Lemmings Domestic rats etc.? 66. Order including the most important of the wild mammals? What stands at the head of these, and what of its presence in certain regions? Kinds of deer in the cool temperate latitudes? Other species of deer? 67. Chamois etc.? What places do the two former frequent? 68. Sheep and urus

69. Europe claims but a single pachyderm, the wild boar, which has a wide range through the heart of the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is undoubtedly the progenitor of our common swine.

70. Many of the wild quadrupeds of this part of the world have their range extending somewhat beyond its limits. Thus, of 180 species which have been enumerated, forty-five are also found in western Asia and nine in northern Africa. On the other hand, some species which are regarded as belonging peculiarly to the neighboring grand divisions, are found to a limited extent within the borders of Europe; as, for instance, the wild ass upon the Steppes, and a species of monkey on the Island of Gibraltar.

71. Europe is richer in birds than in any other class of the animal kingdom; being surpassed in the number of its species only by tropical America. More of them, however, are birds of passage than in other quarters of the globe.

72. The northern and northwestern regions are especially distinguished for their multitude of water-fowl, including more than thirty species of the duck family, besides many others of the swimming and wading orders. Most of our domestic ducks, geese, and swans are descended from the indigenous wild fowl of these regions. Terns, snipes, and plovers abound in nearly all parts; and herons, in the south. Several species of cranes, likewise, are common in the south; and, of storks, in both the middle and southern sections.

In Holland, the stork is treated with peculiar favor. It migrates, on the approach of cold weather, to Asia Minor; but returns regularly, and occupies its old nest, generally on a chimney-top.

73. Gallinaceous (crowing or scratching) fowls are abundant, but comprise few species. They occur chiefly in central Europe, except the various grouse, which are more numerous toward the north. The biset or rock pigeon, mainly confined to this part of the world, is supposed to be the source of most of our varieties of domestic doves.

74. Singing birds are particularly characteristic, embracing a great number of species. They are generally of sober plumage; but many are distinguished for the wonderful variety and sweetness of their notes.

Questions.-69. Pachyderm? Of what is it the progenitor? 70. Range of the wild quadrupeds? European species in Asia and Africa? Species belonging to the neighboring grand divisions, common here? 71. In what class of the animal kingdom is Europe peculiarly rich? Birds of passage? 72. Regions distinguished for water-fowl? Ducks etc.? Domestic species descended from the wild fowl of these regions? Terns, herons, etc.? Cranes and storks? 73. Gallinaceous fowls? Where do they occur chiefly? Source of our varieties of domestic doves? 74. Singing birds? Their plumage and notes?

Among the principal songsters are the nightingale, linnet, skylark, goldfinch, and red breast.

75. Rapacious birds are numerous, especially in the higher mountainregions. Five species of vultures and ten of eagles are found here; although but two or three of the latter are peculiar to this region. The vultures are limited chiefly to the highest parts of the Alps and Pyrenees. The owl family includes not less than fifteen species; among which the most noted are the great snowy owl of the Arctic regions, and the horned owl, confined mainly to the forests of central Europe. Various falcons and hawks occur in nearly all parts.

76. As before remarked, a great share of the birds of Europe are migratory. Many pass the winter in the warmer parts of Asia or in northern Africa; while a considerable number, which are natives of these warmer regions, as the ibis, flamingo, pelican, and spoonbill, spend the summer on the southern shores of Europe.

77. The reptiles are few, small, and generally harmless. The order of batrachians, or frogs and their allies, however, comprises two or three times as many species as in other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere; but is much less numerous than in America. The only venomous snakes are three species of viper, confined to the southern countries. Lizards, skinks, etc., are common in the south, especially in Italy; but are rare in other parts. Turtles, likewise, belong chiefly to the Mediterranean countries.

78. The seas and inland waters of Europe abound with many species of fish. The Mediterranean is especially rich in its variety; although inferior to the British and Scandinavian seas, in the quantity and quality of such as are most useful to man. A remarkable contrast, forcibly illustrating the separation of marine faunas by seemingly slight hindrances, exists between the fish of the Mediterranean and those of the Black Sea. Out of 444 species belonging to the former, only twentyseven are common in the latter; although the communication between these seas is short and uninterrupted.

79. The most valuable marine fish on the western coast comprise cod, mackerel, herring, turbot, haddock, pilchard, ling, etc.; in the Mediter

Question-Principal songsters? 75. Rapacious birds? Vultures and eagles? To what regions are the vultures limited chiefly? Owl family? Most noted species? Falcons etc.? 76. Share of migratory birds? Where do many pass the winter? Birds spending the summer on the southern shores? 77. Reptiles? Batrachians? Venomous snakes? Lizards etc.? Turtles? 78. Abundance of fish in Europe? Those of the Mediterranean? Contrast between the fish of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea? Species belonging to the former that are common in the latter, and communication between these seas? 79. Valuable marine fish on the western coast? In the Mediterranean?

ranean, anchovies, tanny, sardines, and others. Cod abound chiefly upon the Dogger Bank-about midway between England and Holland, -and the fishery in this region is surpassed only by that on the banks of Newfoundland. They are also exceedingly abundant, from February to April, on the shallow parts of the coast of Norway.

Not unfrequently they enter the bays on the Norwegian coast "in shoals, many yards deep, and so closely crowded together that a sounding line can scarcely pass between them: 16,000,000 have been caught in one place, in a few weeks."

80. Stromming afford valuable fisheries in the Baltic; and sturgeon, herring, etc., in the Black Sea and Caspian.

81. The principal fresh-water fish of Europe include salmon, pike, trout, carp, perch, etc. The salmon and pike are said to afford the only fresh-water species common to both Europe and America.

82. In the Mediterranean, a kind of polyp furnishes the red coral so much admired for ornaments, and which has become a considerable article of commerce.

83. The insects of Europe offer little that is here worthy of remark. Butterflies, however, are very abundant and, in the south, are highly attractive. Mosquitoes swarm in the high latitudes during the short summers. In the Mediterranean countries, there are three species of scorpions and a tarantula, which are venomous. The Spanish flies and gall-flies of southern Europe are well known.

84. Inhabitants.-[For a general account of the inhabitants of Europe, see pages 110 and 111, paragraphs 5-10; and pages 115 and 116, paragraphs 29-38.]

NOTE TO TEACHERS.-A careful review, in this connection, of the parts of the work just referred to, is earnestly recommended.

85. A distinguished writer* on ethnography-or the science of the natural races and families of man,-reckoning the total population of Europe, a few years since, at 231,600,000, estimated the number of the several varieties approximately as follows:

Questions. Where do cod abound chiefly? Fishery in this region? Where else, and when, are they exceedingly abundant? 80. Fisheries in the Baltic? In the Black Sea and Caspian? 81. Principal fresh-water fish of Europe? Species common to both Europe and America? 82. Polyp in the Mediterranean? 83. Insects of Europe? Butterflies? Mosquitoes? Venomous species? Kinds of flies well known?

Dr. Gustaf Kombst.