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marriage to have been contracted at that early period which is most favourable to the interests of virtue and morality, and, as we have seen, not inconsistent with the public welfare considered in connexion with the principle of population.

Now supposing (what appears to be the fact) that the different chances in the agricultural and commercial states are that, in the former, a man may only die a year or 6 months before his wife; in the latter three or four years sooner, I should be the last man to assert that this is no addition of misery to the lot of the woman. Considering the great majority of suitable matches which take place in civilized countries, and the height of affection which an intercourse of many years produces between two enlightened and tender minds, it is by no means extraordinary that the grief upon the interruption of this connexion is so great and so incurable as it is frequently observed to be. Taking then this observation as the measure of our judg ment as to its quantity, it must certainly be set down as an object to be placed in the balance against the general advantages of the progress of civilization on the condition of mankind. But, however this superior mortality of males may affect the happiness of the female sex generally, it does not necessarily diminish their option of marrying once. For although the total number of females, existing at one time will always exceed that of the males, yet as the prolific power of the former ceases earlier in life, there nevertheless may, and probably will, exist in every society more men of an age to marry with prudence than women capable of child-bearing. The numerical difference in favour of the women therefore will

chiefly be found in the comparative numbers of

aged men and women. For what purpose Providence has ordained that the latter should exceed the former is left with great deference to the speculations of others but I trust that no one will attempt to extract from the circumstance any argument in favour of polygamy. Should any be so inclined, or tempted either to believe with Mr. Hume that all regulations upon this head are equally lawful, or to think with Mr. Bruce, that the number of wives should be regulated by the law of nature; he cannot too soon be informed that by this same law of nature, and consequently by Mr. Hume's principles of natural justice, a man (in Europe at least) is only entitled to one young wife, together with as many old ones as he chooses to marry.

I think it will now appear that, all things considered, the actual decrease in the number of marriages, which attends the progress of society towards its advanced stages, affords no proof of any necessary or material increase of vice or misery among the female sex, and it is curious to contemplate the gradual improvement in their situation, during the advance of society from the savage state treated in the fourth chapter of the first book.

To conclude then. If, upon a deliberate review of the causes which produce the abatement in the progress of population as society advances, any one should still incline to doubt how far they have been calculated to operate upon the numbers of mankind, without any necessary degradation of their moral and political state; or should hesitate in assenting to the position that a fair and practicable conformity on the part of a people to the dictates of morals and religion is sufficient to

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secure the salutary operation of those causes; let him reflect upon the following addition to the virtue and happiness of mankind conferred by the increase of commerce and civilization, taken absolutely and without reference to the moral and religious cultivation of the people by other means. troduced by the mutual dependence of all ranks of the people upon each other, and the more regular distribution of produce in commercial and civilized countries in consequence of every man's having a valuable consideration, either of labour or manufacture; to give in exchange for it,—the superior comforts which in some degree pervade even the lowest ranks in consequence of the further application of science to the common purposes of life,—and the intellectual enjoyments imparted to a large portion of the people, are among the least observed, but not the least important, of these benefits. The virtues peculiar to these states of society in Christian countries, though seldom traced to their scource, are equally true and indisputable. The intercourse promoted between different individuals and societies, and between one country and another, must tend to humanize the mind and to promote the spirit of philanthropy; and as the continuance of this intercourse must depend upon a general adherence to justice, integrity, and industry, it can hardly avoid introducing among the parties concerned a conformity with those virtues in principle and practice. The brutality and cruelty to inferiors, the arrogant contempt and surly pride, so conspicuous in the distant and scattered residents of agricultural districts, (which Mr. Barrow has so well illustrated in his account of the Boors of the Cape of Good-Hope, and for a smaller

degree of which other nations might be quoted,) where the violent and tyrannical passions are not allayed by any respect for, or intercourse with, equals, disappear immediately amidst the personal collision and frequent reciprocity of kindness in a commercial community. Commerce, too, when its liberal principles once come to be rightly understood, and it is conducted upon those of an enlightened system of Christianity, not only promotes peace over the several nations of the world, but may, and in fact often has, become the means of propagating that holy religion, for the reception of which it seems absolutely necessary that men should be, in some degree, civilized and acquainted with the artificial comforts of life. The extension of commerce, too, affords an opportunity of uniting many heads, many hands, and many purses for these glorious and benevolent objects, and give an increased chance of success in their pursuit. The superior impulse given to charity by this change of society has before been treated at some length: the magnificent instances exhibited, in our own metropolis are the admiration of Europe. The improvement likewise of the intellectual faculties of man, under the influence of morals and religion, should certainly enable him the better to resist the temptations which may assail his virtue.

These are, perhaps, the chief benefits to the virtue and happiness of man bestowed by commerce. That every commercial nation, or even any one of them, practises all these virtues to the full extent of their power is not asserted. Bu that they are all within its power, and therefore that an all-wise and all-good Providence intended that

they should practise them, is as certain as that many members of society do actually so regulate their conduct as far as their limited means allow. The general effects of commerce and civilization, however, are in a great measure such as are here stated; and these effects will become more universal with every spread of morality, and of that religion which has made commerce and wealth the instruments of improving and converting, instead of degrading and corrupting, mankind.

The whole amount then of the arguments of both sides, with respect to the relative virtue and happiness of the commercial and less advanced states of society, may perhaps be reduced to this-that each has its respective tempations, differing from those of the others in quality though not in quantity or degree, considering the means bestowed for resisting them. The practice of virtue, therefore, all things considered, is equally easy or difficult in all, according to the attention which is paid to the morals of the people; and happiness being dependant upon the degree in which virtue is practised, their several chances of attaining it are equal likewise. But (as Dr. Paley, Mor. Phil. b. vi. c. ii. p. 345, finely observes) "The final view of all rational politics is to produce the greatest quantity of happiness in a given tract of country;" and we may fairly conclude that the intention of Providence is the same with respect to the world in general. It follows therefore that, with an equal proportion of happiness in the possession of individuals, the more of them there are, the nearer will that intention be to complete its fulfilment. I trust therefore that,

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