The increase of industry, the improvement of the govern.

ment, and the amelioration of the morals of the Chinese,

would be sufficient to set the people permanently at ease

page 143

as to their means of subsistence....

Comparison of the condition of China, with that of the

united British kingdom, with respect to population and

production, with the causes of the difference between

them....

This difference chiefly derived from moral causes

Opposition between the hypothesis maintained in this trea-

tise and that promulgated by Mr. Malthus as to the

natural tendency of population to increase....

As to the permanence of the prosperity of particular states

This opposition principally founded in moral causes....

CHAPTER IX.

.........

144

148

149

152

153

Brief recapitulation of the contents of the preceding book 154

Doubtful nature of the illustrations derived from historical
and statistical inquiries with respect to questions of po-
litical economy

In the early stages of society population evidently keeps

at an immense distance within the powers of the soil

to afford it subsistence....

ib.

155

156

157

The same in the purely agricultural stage....

In the more advanced stages the progress of population is

nicely adapted by Providence to the decreasing powers

of the soil....

Provided the people are reasonably moral and industrious 160

The sum of the whole argument is, that a practicable

degree of good government, and sound morals, will

enable a people to flourish in a state of progressive im-

provement, without any impediment from the principle

of population...

162

BOOK II.

POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES DEDUCIBLE FROM THE PRINCI-

PLES MAINTAINED IN THIS TREATISE.

CHAPTER I.

Consequences to be deduced from the first principle, viz.
"that population has a natural tendency to keep within

the powers of the soil to afford it subsistence in every

gradation through which society passes "......... 'page 165

The encouragement of population is a question open to
the sound discretion of statesmen..

They should always encourage industry.

Cases may occur where a direct encouragement to popu-

lation may be consistent with that of industry. . . . . . . .

But care should be taken that the two objects should pro-

ceed pari passu

Modes by which this may be effected.

And made subservient to the interests of humanity.

How far experience justifies such a system

ib.

166

167

171

172

177

...

178

Justice, policy, and humanity, of such a system illus-

trated by the opinions of Montesquieu and Sir J. Steuart 180

CHAPTER II.

Application of the second principle; viz. "that the ten-

dency of population to keep within the powers of the

soil to afford subsistence CAN NEVER BE DESTROYED,

and can only be altered or diverted from its natural

course, so as to induce a mischievous pressure of popu-

lation against the actual supply of food by grossly impo-

Titic laws and customs; either, first, accelerating the

progress of population beyond its natural rate-or, se-

condly, depressing agriculture below its natural stand-

ard".

Artificial habits and the consumption of food in luxuries

will always prevent a people far advanced in society

from literally pressing against the actual supply of food 187

But it may press against the conveniences of life, and

....

require further production in order to preserve the peo-

ple in their actual condition

Necessary to inquire how further production of food is

then to be secured

....

186

188

189

CHAPTER III.

An inquiry into the natural order of precedence between

population and the production of food

190

205

206

Summary of these opinions....
.... page 202

Attempt of the author to reconcile them, and to draw out

a consistent system from the contending arguments....

This system founded upon a comparison of the different

states of society, from the observation of which individu-

ally each writer seems to have drawn his conclusions ..

The arguments of this chapter establish the truth of the

fifth fundamental proposition of this treatise; viz.

"That in the alternate progress of population and pro-

duction in the earliest as well as in the most advanced

stages of society a previous increase of people is neces→

sary to stimulate the community to a further production

of food," &c..

CHAPTER IV.

Of the mischievous pressure of population caused by acce-

lerating its progress considerably beyond the natural

rate

This pressure will be produced wherever population is
encouraged, without a corresponding encouragement of
industry and of morality..

Instances of this mistaken encouragement.

Illustrations from Ireland and America.

...

Remedies proposed chiefly of a moral nature.....

Different consequences which flow from encouraging po-

pulation respectively by moral and immoral methods ...

CHAPTER V.

Of the mischievous pressure of population caused by de-

pressing the productive energies of the soil considerably

below its natural powers..........

Expense of reclaiming fresh land is continually increasing
with the progress of society

The encouragement must therefore increase in proportion

Especially when the public institutions of a country are of

a liberal and expensive nature

Unless the community has recourse to the hazardous ex-

pedient of permanently trusting to a supply of imported

food......

This encouragement must be afforded by the legislature,
upon some fixed principles which should be ascertained
by an investigation into the principle of corn laws.....

CHAPTER VI.

An inquiry into the principle of corn laws

213

214

ib.

217

ib.

219

224

226

ib.

227

228

230

234

All corn laws, a departure from general principles..

Policy of corn laws in the early stages of society...

stages....

own people....

page 234

235

236

239

in the manufacturing and commercial.

in a small territory unable to feed its

in an extensive country capable in

average years of feeding its own people......

Corn laws, intended to secure a sufficient domestic growth.

of subsistence for the people, must ensure to the grower

of corn, and to the clearer of land, such a price for the

produce as will cover all expenses, and leave a fair profit

upon their capital and industry.

241

243

This security to the corn grower should be made to inter-

fere as little as possible with the prosperity of commerce

and manufactures, which are in one sense the parents

of agriculture in the advanced stages of society......

Agriculture cannot permanently flourish unless the price

of produce be sufficient to cover the expence incurred

by the grower in rent, expenses of cultivation, and Taxes 248

CHAPTER VII.

An inquiry into the nature of rent.....

245

249

Singular opinions held by various political economists on

the nature of rent

ib.

It is no "monopoly price," but only a fair remuneration

for capital laid out

254

Without which land would not be cleared, nor its produce

carried to market.....

256

The value of capital vested in land is as much regulated

by a fair competition between the demand for and the

supply of its products as capital vested in other depart-

ments of industry..

258

CHAPTER VIII.

An inquiry into the expenses and profits of the tenant ..

These amount on the average of inferior soils to near

four fifths of the price of the produce..

Are made up of the wages of labour, the wear and tear

of stock, and implements, and taxes...

265

CHAPTER IX.

Of the wages of labour ...

266

Effects of the progress of society on the wages of labour 267

And on the habits of the labourers

These effects should be provided for...

...

page 268

269

270

272

273

274

ib.

Illustrations from the state of wages in Scotland....

from Mr. Malthus's Inquiry into Rent..

Conclusions to be derived from this chapter.....

Objections that may be offered to them....

Explained and answered ....

The price of produce should be high enough to enable the

cultivator to pay such wages to his labourers as shall ren-

der them and their families capable of participating in the

general improvement of the commonwealth..

CHAPTER X.

278

On the remainder of a tenant's expenses, including taxa-

tion, and on the profits of his farm...

280

agriculture

ral consumer

....

....

A fair profit to the tenant necessary to the prosperity of

Requires, however, some sacrifice on the part of the gene-

Causes which have affected the tenant's profits in England

during the last century

....

CHAPTER XI.

On the causes of the present depression, and of the fluc-

tuations which have lately taken place in the price of

agricultural produce

The probability of a steady and uniform price of corn in

the advanced stages of society ....

305