sometimes, while, in case, upon (3) Substantive :—sometimes . · condition, in order that, otherwise, likewise (= in like wise), on the one hand. . . on the other hand, on the contrary, because, besides, on purpose that, at times, if (see footnote on p. 200). (4) Adjective (Adverbial): — even, alike, accordingly, conse quently, directly, finally, lastly, namely, partly partly, only, furthermore, moreover, now. . . now, anon.. anon, lest, unless (O.E. onlesse), &c. (a) Originally used before the demonstratives that or this:-ere, after, before, but, for, in (that), since (sith, sithence1), till, until, with (that); (b) participial :—notwithstanding, except, excepting, save, saving, &c. (6) Verbal:-to wit, videlicet (viz.), say, suppose, considering, providing. 2 (7) Compounds, being abbreviated forms of expression: not only, nathless, nevertheless, nathemore (Spenser), O. E. nathemo, O.E. never the later, that is, that is to say, may be, were it not, were it so, be it be So, how be it, albeit, O.E. al if, &c. So, So in O. E. we have warne, warn = were it not, unless (cp. O. H.Ger. nur = ni wâri were it not), equivalent to the O. E. nare that, were it not. Cp. O.E. quin (= qui ne = why not), O that. 1 The O.E. sip-pan = sip-pam, after that. 2 Not only...but also O. E. nå læs that an . . . thŷ las; lest = O.E. les the for thy las the. ac eac; nathless = O.E CHAPTER XVII. INTERJECTIONS.1 318. INTERJECTIONS, having no grammatical connection with other words in a sentence, are not, strictly speaking, "parts of speech." They are either imitations of cries expressing a sudden outburst of feeling, as oh, ah, or are mere sound gestures, as st, sh. Many words, phrases, and sentences have come to be used interjectionally, as alas, zounds, &c. αν. Interjections may express feelings of— (1) Pain, weariness-ah, oh, O (O.Fr. a, ah, ahi, O, oh, ohi), O.E. interjections of pain are, a, ou, ow. Welaway, welladay (O.E. wa la wa; lâ Scotch waly, O.E. awey (alas). = lo, wa = woe; wá là, Alas (O.F. hailas, kalas), alack, lackadaisy, alackaday, boohoo, out alas, O dear me (? dio mio, my God), heigh ho, heigh, heyday, O.E. hig. (2) Joy-hey, heigh (Fr. hé), hey-day, hurrah, huzza, hilliho. (3) Surprise, &c.—eh (O.E. ey), ha, ha, ha! what, why, how, lo, la, lawk, aha (Lat. ha), ho, hi. (4) Aversion, disgust, disapproval-fy, fie, foh, fugh, faugh, fudge, poh, pooh, pugh (Fr. pouah), baw, bah, pah,2 pish, pshah, pshaw, tut, whew, ugh (O.E. weu), out, out on, hence, avaunt, aroynt, begone, for shame, fiddle-faddle. "Voces quæ cujuscunque passionis animi pulsu per exclamationem interjiciuntur."-PRISCIAN, Inst. Gram. 1. 15, c. 7. 2 Selden uses pah as adj. : "It (child) all bedawbs it (coat) with its pah hands." -Table Talk. Shakespeare has it as an interj. :"Fie, fie, fie! pah! pah! Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination."-Lear, iv. 6. P 1 (5) Protestation-indeed, in faith, perdy, gad, egad, ecod, ods, odd, odd's bob, odd's pettikins, udsfoot, ods bodkins, od zooks, zooks, odso, gadso, 'sdeath, 'slife, zounds, 'sbud, 'sblood, lord, marry, lady, birlady, by'rlakin, jingo,2 by jingo, deuce, dyce, devil, gemminy (O gemini). (6) Calling and exclaiming-hilloa, holla, ho, so ho, hoy, hey, hem, harow (O. Fr. haro, a cry for help), help, hoa, bravo, well done, hark, look, see, oyes, mum, hist, whist, tut, tush, silence, peace, away, bo, shoo, shoohoo, whoa. (7) Doubt, consideration-why, hum, hem (Lat. hem), humph, what. (8) Many interjections are what are called "imitative words," or onomatopeias:— Sounds produced (a) by inanimate objects—ding-dong, bim-bom, ting-tang, tick-tack, thwack, whack, twang, bang, whiz, thud, whop, slap, dash, splash, clank, puff. (b) By animate objects-bow-wow, mew, caw, purr, croak, cock-a-doodle-do, cuckoo, tu-whit, to-whoo, tu-whu, weke-weke, ha ha.3 1 In gad, egad, od, the name of the Deity is profanely used. In the Middle Ages people swore by parts of Christ's body, by His sides, face, feet, bones; hair (cp. sfacks, God's hair), blood, wounds (zounds, 'od's nouns = God's wounds), life; also by the Virgin Mary (by the mackins by the maiden), by the mass: also, by the pity and mercy of God, as "by Goddes ore;" "Odd's pittikens ;' by God's sanctities (God's sonties). 2 Fingo, jinkers =St. Gingoulph. 3 Used to imitate the sound of a horse's neigh, as Job xxxix. 25. Luther uses hut. CHAPTER XVIII. DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION. 319. ROOTS, as we have seen, are either predicative or demonstrative, and constitute the primary elements of words. See § 58. The root is the significative part of a word, as bair-n, O.E. ber-n, contains the root bar, to bear. Suffixes serve to modify the root meaning, as the n in bair-n, which is identical with the en in the passive participle of strong verbs: hence bairn one bor-n or brought forth. Thus from the verb spin, by adding the suffix -der, lenoting the instrument or agent, we get spi-der,1 the spinner. = Suffixes were once independent words, which, by being added to principal roots to modify their meaning, gradually lost their independence and became mere signs of relation, and were employed as formative elements. Cp. the origin of the adverbial suffix -ly, which originally signified like. To get at the root of a word we must remove all the formative elements, and such changes of vowel as have been produced by the addition of relational syllables. A theme or stem is that modification that the root assumes before the terminations of declension and conjugation are added, as love-d; lov (= luf) is the root; love (= lufo) is the theme or stem; -d is the suffix of the past tense. 320. Themes are formed from roots (1) by the addition of a demonstrative root, (2) by a change of the root vowel, (3) by combining other stems, (4) by reduplication. In English very many formative elements have been lost, especially those of demonstrative origin. Gothic has retained more of these suffixes, once common to all the Aryan languages: thus from the root gaf = give, the O.E. formed gif-u a gift, gif-ol, generous, liberal; gif-ta, marriage dowry; gif-te-lic, belonging to a wedding; gif-an, to give; giv-en-de, giving, a giver. Here the root-vowel a is weakened to i. Gothic has gab-ei, gain, gift; gab-ei-gs, rich; gab-i-g-aba, richly; gib-a, gift; gib-a-n, to give; gib-and-s, a giver, giving; other derivations might be found, as gab-ig-jan, to enrich; gab-ig-nan, to be rich. I In English a radical n often disappears before d, th, as tooth, O.E. toth i.e tonth; cp. O. H. Ger. tand, Ger. zahn, Lat. dens. In O.E. gifu, Goth. giba, a or u is a demonstrative particle forming a feminine noun; gif-ta contains the demonstrative th (as in the). In the Gothic gab-ei (for gabi) the suffix forms an abstract substantive feminine; by adding the adjective suffix g (same as English y in dirt-y) we get gabei-g; then with the further addi tion of the nominative sign we have gabei-gs. From gibig (= gabig or gabeig) we form a causative verb gab-ig-j-an, to enrich, and by means of the demonstrative n (the sign of the passive participle) we get a verb with a passive signification gibig-n-an, to be rich. SUFFIXES (OF TEUTONIC ORIGIN). 321. I. Nouns (Substantives and Adjectives). (A) VOWEL SUFFIXES. Many words have lost a vowel suffix in English from the earliest time. Cp. O.E. wulf, a wolf, with Lat. lupu-s,1 Sansk. vark-a-s; O.E. hund, a hound, Goth. hund-s, Gr. kówv, Lat. cani-s, Sansk. shunas ( = kunas); O.E. deor, Goth. diu-s, Gr. 0p, Lat. fera. Modern English has thrown off, or reduced to silent letters, many older vowel endings, as O.E. duru, dore, a door, Goth. daura, Sansk. dvar-a, Gr. Oúpa; O. E. cneow, the knee, Goth. kniu, Gr. yóvv, Lat. genu.2 The suffix -ow represents in some few substantives an older suffix, (1) u, (2) wa. O.E. sceadu, Goth. skathu-s. O.E. meodu, medu.3 O.E. cal-u, Lat. calvus. O.E. feal-u, fealwe, Lat. fulvus. O. E. mal-u, Lat. malva. = O. E. nearu. = = O. E. salu, O. H.Ger. salaw. O.E. geolu, Lat. gilvus. O.E. swal-ewe, O. H. Ger. swal-awa, Ger. schwalbe. 1 S = sign of nominative. from πενέω; 2 Eng. bond or band corresponds to Gothic bandi. Cp. Lat. nouns in -ia, as in-ed-ia, hunger, from root ed, eat ; Gr. noun in ca, as πev-ía, poverty, Sansk. vid-ya, knowledge. 3 In many others it is lost, even in the oldest English, tôth, tooth; Goth. tun thus, &c. |