CONSTANTIUS, AND HIS PERSIAN CAMPAIGN. 245 enlisted in the service of Sapor, whilst others had engaged their doubtful fidelity to the Emperor.* Constantine had long before his death contemplated a war with Persia, on account of the protracted friendship which had existed between Tiridates and the court of Rome. The aggressive, predatory, and persecuting temper of Sapor had frequently perpetrated annoyances upon the territories of the Armenian Monarch; so that Constantine, at the close of his life, resolved to punish the aggressor, and to protect the injured. The more grave and important operations of the war were conducted with considerable vigour, and the armies of Rome and of Persia encountered each other in nine bloody fields, in two of which Constantius himself commanded in person. The event of the day was most commonly adverse to the Romans; but in the battle of Singara, their imprudent valour had almost achieved a signal and decisive victory. The stationary troops of Singara retired on the approach of Sapor, who passed the Tigris, and occupied the village of Hilleh, which by his pioneers he surrounded in one day with a deep ditch and a lofty rampart. After a slight resistance the Persians fled in disorder before the Romans, unable to resist the strength of the heavy legions. Constantius, who hurried along in the pursuit, attempted, without effect, to restrain the ardour of his troops, by representing to them the dangers of the approaching night, and the certainty of completing their success on the following day. But they depended more on their own valour than on the experience or the abilities of their chief; they silenced by their clamours his timid remonstrances, and, rushing with fury to the charge, filled up the ditch, broke down the rampart, and dispersed themselves through the tents to recruit their exhausted strength, and to enjoy the rich harvest of their labours. The Persian Monarch watched the moment of victory. His army, of which the greater part, securely posted on the heights, had been spectators of the action, advanced in silence, and under the shadow of the night; and his archers, guided by the illumination of the camp, poured a shower of arrows on a disarmed and licentious crowd. The Romans were vanquished with a dreadful slaughter, and the flying remnant was exposed to the most intolerable hardships.† The courtly flattery of some of the panegyrists of Constantius attribute the whole of this disaster to the disobedience of the soldiery, rather than to any want of military prudence and courage on the part of the Emperor : nevertheless, one of these venal scribblers relates, with amazing coolness, an act of such incredible cruelty as, in the judgment of posterity, must imprint a far deeper stain on the honour of the imperial name. The son of Sapor, the heir of his crown, had been made a captive in the Persian camp. The unhappy youth, who might have * Ammianus gives a lively description of the wandering and predatory life of the Saracens, who stretched from the confines of Assyria to the cataracts of the Nile. It appears from the adventures of Malchus, which Jerome has related in so entertaining a manner, that the high road between Berea and Edessa was infested by these robbers. †The Persian historians, or romancers, do not mention the battle of Singara, but make the captive Shahpour (Sapor) escape, and defeat and take prisoner the Roman Emperor. The Roman captives were forced to repair all the ravages they had committed, even to replanting the smallest trees. (Milman.) excited the compassion of the most savage enemy, was scourged, tortured, and publicly executed by the inhuman Romans. Sapor could not, however, consider himself a conqueror, so long as the fortified towns of Mesopotamia, and especially the fortified city of Nisibis,* remained in the possession of the Romans, before which he had been frequently repulsed. This large and populous city was situate about two days' journey from the Tigris, in the midst of a pleasant and fertile plain at the foot of Mount Massius. A triple enclosure of brick-walls was defended by a deep ditch, and the garrison was encouraged by the desperate gallantry of the people. The citizens were also animated by the exhortations of the Bishop; they were inured to arms by the presence of danger, and roused by the intentions of Sapor to plant a Persian colony in their room, and to lead them away into distant and barbarous captivity. The result of two former failures, whilst they elated the confidence of the people, had exasperated the haughty spirit of the Persian King, who, with the united forces of Persia and the neighbourhood, was resolved to undergo no further defeat. The ordinary machines invented to batter or undermine the walls, were rendered ineffectual by the superior skill of the Romans; and many days had vainly elapsed, when Sapor embraced a resolution worthy of an Eastern Monarch, who believed that the elements themselves were subject to his power. At the stated season of the melting of the snows in Armenia, the river Mygdonius, which divides the plain and the city of Nisibis, forms, like the Nile, an inundation over the adjacent country. By the labour of the Persians the course of the river was stopped below the town, and the waters were confined on every side by solid mounds of earth. On this artificial lake a fleet of armed vessels filled with soldiers, and with engines which discharged stones of five hundred pounds weight, advanced in order of battle, and engaged, almost upon a level, the troops which defended the ramparts. The irresistible force of the waters was alternately fatal to the contending parties, till at length a portion of the walls, unable to sustain the accumulated pressure, gave way at once, and exposed an ample breach of one hundred and fifty feet. The Persians were instantly driven to the assault, and the fate of Nisibis depended on the event of the day. The heavy-armed cavalry, who led the van of a deep column, were embarrassed in the mud, and great numbers were drowned in the unseen holes which had been * Nisibis was a very ancient, noble, and strong city of Mesopotamia, in Mygdonia, towards the Tigris. Some ascribe its origin to Nimrod, and suppose it to be the Achad of Moses. It was built by a colony of Macedonians, who called it Antiochia of Mygdonia. Strabo says it was situated at the foot of Mount Massius. It was the Roman bulwark against the Parthians and Persians. It sustained three memorable sieges against the power of Sapor, A.D. 338, 346, and 350. But the Emperor Jovianus, by an ignominious peace, delivered it up to the Persians, A.D. 363. Nisibis is now reduced to one hundred and fifty houses; the marshy lands produce rice, and the fertile meadows, as far as Mosul and the Tigris, are covered with the ruins of towns and villages. (Niebuhr, Voyages, tom. ii., pp. 300-309.) † Macdonald Kinnier observes on these floating batteries, "As the elevation of the place is considerably above the level of the country in its immediate vicinity, and the Mygdonius is a very insignificant stream, it is difficult to imagine how this work could have been accomplished, even with the wonderful resources which the King must have had at his disposal." SAPOR IS DEFEATED BEFORE NISIBIS. 247 filled by the rushing waters. The elephants, made furious by their wounds, increased the disorder, and trampled down thousands of the Persian archers. The great King, who from an exalted throne beheld the misfortunes of his arms, sounded, with reluctant indignation, the signal of retreat, and suspended for some hours the prosecution of the attack. But the vigilant citizens improved the opportunity of the night, and the return of day discovered a new wall of six feet in height, rising every moment to fill up the interval of the breach. Notwithstanding the disappointment of his hopes, and the loss of more than twenty thousand men, Sapor still pressed the reduction of Nisibis with an obstinate firmness which could have yielded only to the necessity of defending the Eastern provinces of Persia against a formidable invasion of the Massagetæ.* Alarmed by this intelligence, he hastily relinquished the siege, and marched with rapid diligence from the banks of the Tigris to those of the Oxus. The dangers and difficulties of the Scythian war engaged him soon afterwards to conclude, or at least to observe, a truce with the Roman Emperor, which was equally grateful to both Princes; as Constantius himself, after the death of his brothers, was involved, by the revolutions of the West, in a civil contest, which required and seemed to exceed the most vigorous exertion of his undivided strength. This "dearth and din of war" were by no means favourable to the interests of Christianity, especially in Persia: the condition, therefore, of the church of Christ in that country will engage our attention in the subsequent chapter. -- CHAPTER II. Effect of the Contests between Rome and Persia upon the Church-Intolerance of the Magi-Their History and Character-Zoroaster-Zendavista—Armenia, the first Christian Country-By whom Christianity was introduced-Struggles and Persecution with which it had to contend-Tiridates-Gregory the Apostle of Armenia, and his Successors-Persian Persecution-Sapor-Simeon, Archbishop of Seleucia -His Character-Martyrdom of Usthazares-Of Simeon-Numerous Sufferers -Martyrdom of Pusicius-Persecution increases-Maruthas-Tarbula and others martyred-Martyrdom of Acepsimas, Joseph, and Aithalas-Multitude of Martyrs and Confessors-Bardemus suffers-Case of Narses-Commemoration of Martyrs -Martyrdom of Milles-Effect of these Persecutions-Buoyant Spirit of Christianity -State of the Church-Religious Character of the Sons of Constantine-Death of Eusebius the Historian—And of Alexander, Bishop of Constantinople—Paul his Successor His Character and untimely End—Altered State of Discipline in the Church-Macedonius and Macedonians—Deposition of Athanasius—Gregory * We are obliged to Zonaras (tom. i., lib. xiii., p. 11) for an account of this invasion of the Massageta, which is perfectly consistent with the general series of events of which we darkly read in the broken history of Ammianus. The Massageta were a people of Scythia, east of the Caspian sea, who had their wives in common, and dwelt in tents. They had no temples, but worshipped the sun, to which they offered horses on account of their swiftness. When their parents had come to a certain age, they generally put them to death, and ate their flesh, mixed with that of cattle. + Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. iii., chap. xviii., p. 142. Milman, edit. 8vo. of Cappadocia-Philagrius-Persecuting Acts of Gregory-Athanasius flies to Rome-Sufferings of Potamo-Address of Athanasius to the Orthodox-Remarks of Milner the Historian-Eusebius of Nicomedia translated to ConstantinopleHis Character-Hermogenes is killed in a Tumult-Constans and Constantius contrasted—Council of Sardica-Proceedings of Its Objects were frustrated— Hosius of Corduba—Disastrous Appearance of the Church-Council of Milan in 347-Photinus condemned-Pretended Recantation of Ursaces and Valens— Feigned Reconciliation of Constantius with Athanasius—Its gross Inconsistency— Athanasius is restored to Alexandria—Onager-Deposition of Stephen the ArianPersian War-The Admonitions of Constans-Success of the Arms of Constantius - Want of Talent in Constans—Magnentius—Conspiracy against Constans— Magnentius assumes the Purple-And Constans is slain-Constantius refuses to treat with the Usurper-Engages in a severe Contest, which ends in the Defeat of Magnentius, who ultimately falls on his Sword-The Mask is now discarded by Constantius-Athanasius considered a personal Enemy to the Emperor-Distressed State of the Church-Synods of Arles and Milan-Persecution by the Arians— Effects following the late Restoration of Athanasius-Marcellus-The Subellians and Arians-Athanasius flies to Rome-And other Prelates are banished-Some Bishops were slain or cruelly treated-George, the Arian Bishop of AlexandriaHis fearful persecuting Acts-Cruel Treatment of the Exiles- Tragic Scenes on a "Trinity Sunday" "-Persecution in Alexandria-Account of Secundus, a Priest -Orthodox Prelates of Egypt and Libya banished-Death of Paul referred to— Triumph of Macedonius-Weakness of Constantius-Baneful Influence of Prosperity-Council of Milan--Lucifer, Bishop of Cagliari-Eusebius, Bishop of Vercella-Hilary the Deacon is scourged-Liberius, Bishop of Rome-Is summoned to Milan-His Interview with Constantius-Liberius is banished-Felix supersedes him in his See-Drooping State of the Church illustrated in the Defection of Liberius-And also of Hosius, Bishop of Corduba-Extract from one of his EpistlesContinued Privations of Athanasius-His Address to Dracontius-Constantius resorts to Violence-Cathedral of Alexandria invested by Soldiers-In the Confusion the Prelate escapes-Flees among the Monks and Hermits of the Desert-Who protect him-Many Treatises written during this Retreat—Insolence of Paganism— George of Cappadocia―Cruelties perpetrated by him-Milner quoted-Projected Union of the Orthodox and Novatian Churches--Which proved abortive-Eusebius of Vercella-Persecution increases-The Novatians suffer-Character of Novatianism -Zeal displayed in favour of Christianity--Admonitory Case of Hosius-Treatment he underwent from Constantius-Defection of Hosius-Triumph of the Arians -Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers-Death of Hosius-Council at Ariminum-Meletius, Bishop of Antioch-Is subsequently banished-Euzoius-Eustathians-Melancholy Condition of the Church-Value of Creeds-The Athanasian Controversy prepared the way for the Church at Rome to assume the Supremacy—Arianism continues in the Ascendant-Felix the elect Bishop of Rome-Hilary on the State of the Church-Council of Seleucia-And of Ariminum-The Orthodox Faith was recognised by the latter-The Machinations and Intrigues of the Arians afterward prevailed- The Synod of Seleucia-Arianism triumphant—Aetius-Eunomians— Macedonius-Eudoxus-The Christian World in Confusion-Miserable Policy of the Emperor-The Persian War-Illness and Death of Constantius—Accession of Julian to the Throne-His Character-Throws the Shield of Protection over Paganism-Which he openly encourages-Policy of his Attempts against the Christian Faith-Athanasius-Previous Career of Julian-Townsend's Remarks on Gibbon-Julian's Attempts to abolish the Name of Christian-Cause of his Dislike to it-Numerous Restrictions inflicted on the Christians-Early Education of Julian seriously defective-The Conduct of Constantius towards him—Whose general Behaviour tended to excite Disgust in the Mind of Julian-The Influence upon him of the Death of Gallus-Effects of the Death of Constantius upon Julian-The unchristian Christianity of the late Emperor-Julian restores Paganism—His indo SUFFERINGS OF THE CHRISTIANS IN PERSIA. 249 mitable Hatred of Constantine-General Character of Julian-Prosperity of Hea thenism-Julian's Mode of Attack on Christianity-Schemes of philosophical Infidels Ridicule a Weapon in the Hands of the Heathen-Policy of Julian— Professes to abstain from open Persecution-Treatment of the Bishops and inferior Clergy-Vigilant Malice of Julian-Projects the rebuilding of the Temple-Insurmountable Obstacles to its accomplishment-Suppression of Learning among the Christians-The ensnaring Artifices of Julian-Martyrdom of Juventinus and Maximinus-Degradation of Casarea-Maris, Bishop of Chalcedon-Julian attempts to seduce the Followers of Christ-Sufferings of the Presbyter Basil-His Fidelity and Zeal-His Courage and Fortitude-Tortures inflicted by Julian on Basil-Frumentius- Who adds to the Torments- Under which Basil expires-Martyrdom of Gordian-Of John and Paul-Artemius-Cassian-Bonosus and Maximilian-Bibiana-Marcus, Bishop of Arethusa-Many Martyrs-Cæsarius-Persecutions at Merum-Julian visits Antioch-Death of George of Alexandria— Arianism—Lucifer of Cagliari-Fate of Athanasius-The Persian War-Martyrdom of Theodore-Council of Alexandria-Efforts still made to restore Paganism-Persecutions of Julian-Treatment of the Christians-Removal of Babylas— Temple of Apollo burnt-Profanity of Julian-Miracles-Character of JulianPublia-Death of Julian―Julian an Author—Remarks on his Decease. IN the Persian empire it was indeed the hour of darkness with regard to the Christian church. Though Constantine had been instrumental in stilling the tempest, producing outward tranquillity, and establishing Christianity throughout the Roman empire, yet, in other countries not subject to him, the Christians met with usage from the infidels similar to that which they had received from the persecuting Emperors of Rome. This was more especially the case in Persia under Sapor, who swayed the sceptre in that country at the same time that Constantine wore the purple in Rome : here many of the Christians sought refuge from the violence and cruelty of Galerius during the late persecutions, and these spread the Gospel, and brought many to believe on Christ with the heart unto righteousness. The idolatrous Priests, sickened with envy, accused them to Sapor the King, of holding treasonable correspondence with the Romans, who were at war with the Persians they were immediately oppressed with heavy taxation, and orders were issued to massacre every Priest among them. It was in the ancient dominions of Darius and of Xerxes that the old religion of Zoroaster * resumed its power and authority. No sooner had *He was an ancient Oriental philosopher. He is generally regarded as the Zerdusht of the Persians, who reformed the religion of the Magi, and wrote the Zendavista, which contains his pretended revelations; which the ancient Magi and modern Parsees observe and reverence in the same manner as Christians do the Bible, making it the sole rule of their faith and manners. It includes also a reformed system of Magianism, a compendium of which is the Sadder, both regarded as of sacred authority. They taught, that there is a Supreme Being, eternal, self-existent, and independent; who created both light and darkness, out of which he made all other things; that these are in a state of conflict which will continue to the end of the world; that then there shall be a general resurrection and a judgment, and that just retribution shall be rendered unto men according to their works; that the angel of darkness, with his followers, shall be consigned to a place of everlasting gloom and punishment; and the angel of light, with his disciples, introduced into a state of everlasting glory and happiness; after which, light and darkness shall no more interfere with each other. It is evident from these and various other sentiments contained in the Zend, that many parts of it are taken out of the Old Testament. Dr. Baumgarten asserts, that this work contains doctrines, opinions, and facts actually borrowed from the Jews, Christians, and Mahommedans; whence, and from VOL. II. 2 K |