but, on account of the want of good roads, the seaport towns are supplied from Corsica; on the same account Sardinia has no posts. The horses, which, in some parts, run wild, and the horned cattle, are small, but well made. The fisheries are important. Large quantities of salt and cheese are manufactured, and the latter is exported. The causes of the small population of this fertile island are to be referred to the accumulation of the landed property in a few hands, and the absence of the great proprietors (there are in Sardinia 376 fiefs, half of which belong to Spanish families), the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and the practice of private revenge (1000 murders have been committed in the space of one month). The interior exhibits an astonishing degree of barbarism; the peasants are clothed in leather or undressed skins, and the mountains are infested with banditti. The principal towns are the capital, Cagliari q. v.), and Sassari (20,000 inhabitants). Sardinia was probably settled by Pelasgian colonies, in the time of the Heraclides, as the noraghs, or ancient monuments, found in the island, indicate. The number of these monuments is about 600: those which are entire are fifty feet high, with a diameter of ninety feet at base, and terminating at the summit in a cone. They are built on little hills, in a plain, of different sorts of stones, and in some cases are surrounded by a wall. The island then belonged successively to the Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Saracens, the popes, the German emperors, to Pisa, Genoa, and Spain. In 1720, it was ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an indemnification for the loss of Sicily. (See Sardinian Monarchy.) The island was mildly governed by a viceroy, and the inhabitants allowed to retain their old usages. Some dissatisfaction, however, arose towards the close of the century, and, in 1793, a rebellion broke out, which was terminated by the concessions of the government in 1796. The revenue from the island is inconsiderable. The inhabitants arc Catholics, and speak several different dialects, some of which are a mixture of Spanish and Italian. The better classes spak pure Italian.-See Marmora's Voyage en Sardaigne, de 1819-1825 (Paris, 1826); Mimaut's Histoire de Sardaigne (1825); Smyth's Present State of Sardinia Lond., 1828); and Petit-Radel's Notices sur les Nuraghes de la Sardaigne (Paris, 1826). Sardinian Monarchy; a kingdom of the south of Europe, composed of the island of Sardinia, and of several coun18

VOL. XI.

tries of the continent. It comprises in the whole an extent of 28,000 square miles, with a population (in 1829) of 4,165,277 (300,000 French in Savoy, 3,865,077 Italians, and 3200 Jews). The population, with the exception of the Jews, and 21,900 Waldenses, is entirely Catholic. The continental parts of which the monarchy is composed are as follows: The duchy of Savoy; the duchy of Piedmont; the county of Nice or Nizza, with the principality of Monaco; the duchies of Montferrat and (Sardinian) Milan; and the duchy of Genoa (see the separate articles); which are divided, for administrative purposes, into eight provinces ; Savoy, Turin, Coni, Alessandria, Novara, Aosta, Nizza and Genoa. The revenue amounts to $900,000; the expenditure to $1,050,000; debt to $2,500,000; army, 28,000 men, exclusive of 40,000 militia, on the island of Sardinia. The power of the crown is unlimited: the administration is conducted by three secretaries of state: the succession to the throne is confined to the male line. In the island of Sardinia there are estates, and in Genoa the assent of the estates is necessary for the imposition of new taxes. The nobility is numerous, but not exempt from taxation. The clergy (39 archbishops and bishops, 3996 parish priests, 293 male and 144 female convents) is not very wealthy. The papal power is limited by a concordate. There are four universities, at Turin, Genoa, Cagliari and Sassari, but education is in a low state. The reigning prince, the first of the house of Savoy Carignan, is Charles Emanuel, born 1800, married Theresa, sister of the grand-duke of Tuscany, in 1817, succeeded his uncle Charles Felix, May, 1831. He has two sons, Victor Emanuel (born in 1820), and Ferdinand (born in 1822). The royal title is king of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, and duke of Savoy. The crownprince is styled prince of Piedmont. Former sovereigns, Victor Amadeus II, 1713-30; Charles Emanuel III, to 1773; Victor Amadeus III, 1796; Charles Emanuel IV, abdicated 1802; Victor Emanuel I, abdicated 1821; Charles Felix, died 1831. The nucleus of this monarchy was Savoy, a fragment of several states that had crumbled to pieces (the old kingdom of Burgundy, the Frankish monarchy, the Carlovingian kingdom of Italy, and the kingdom of Arles), which became independent in the beginning of the eleventh century. Rodolph III, last king of Arles, created Berthold count of Savoy in 1016. He was probably the ancestor of

the subsequent counts and dukes of Savoy. The counts of Savoy gradually extended their territories, partly by marriages, partly by their adherence to the German emperors, in the disputes between the Guelfs and Gibelines, partly by purchase, and partly by an artful policy in their connexions with the Spanish, French and Austrian courts. By the marriage of the duke Louis with Anne of Lusignan, daughter of James, king of Cyprus, and the will of the queen-dowager of Cyprus (1482), the house of Savoy obtained claims to the kingdom of Cyprus, which caused the kings of Sardinia, at a later period, to assume the title of kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem. In the history of the state we may distinguish two periods. -I. From the first settlement of the succession (1383) by the will of count Amadeus VI, which established the indivisibility of the dominions, and the descent in order of primogeniture, until the admission of the Sardinian monarchy into the European family of states, by the peace of Utrecht. In this period, among other acquisitions, the house of Savoy gained possession of the county of Nizza (1399), and count Amadeus VIII received the ducal title from the emperor Sigismund in 1416; but in the wars between the emperor Charles V and Francis I of France, it lost, in the middle of the sixteenth century, the Valais and Geneva, which put themselves under the protection of Switzerland, and the Pays de Vaud, which was taken possession of by Berne. Philibert Emanuel, who had been driven from his territories by the French, served with so much distinction as the general of Philip II of Spain, in the war against France, that by the peace of Chateau Cambresis (1559), Savoy and Piedmont were restored to him. Meanwhile Protestantism had crept into the country. At the exhortation of the pope, Philibert determined to convert the Protestants, among whom were many Waldenses, by force; but he was several times defeated by them in the mountains; on one of which occasions he lost 7000 men, and was obliged to grant them freedom of religious worship. This prince encouraged manufactures among his subjects, and laid the foundation for the present extensive culture of silk by the introduction of mulberry trees. He also began the construction of several fortresses, and built the citadel of Turin. In 1476, he acquired the principality of Oneglia by exchange, and the county of Tenda by purchase. In the war for the Spanish succession,

duke Victor Amadeus II acquired possession of a part of Milan (Alessandria, Val di Sesia, &c.) as an imperial fief, and of the duchy of Montferrat, which had been originally (twelfth century) a German marquisate, and which should have devolved to Piedmont by descent in 1631. The peace of Utrecht (1713) added Sicily, with the royal title; but, in 1720, the new king was obliged to receive Sardinia in lieu of that island.-II. The second pe riod, from 1720 to the present time, embraces three distinct divisions in Sardinian history. 1. The forty-three Years' Reign of King Charles Emanuel III (1730—73), who was equally distinguished as a general and a ruler. By the peace of Vienna (1735), as the ally of France and Spain against Austria, he obtained a second fragment of Milan (Tortona and Novara) as an imperial fief, and by the treaty of Worms (1743), during the war for the Austrian succession, a third fragment (Anghiera, Vigevano, &c.), likewise as fiefs of the empire. In 1762, he was the mediator of the peace between France and England. By the wisdom of his government, the country was placed in a most prosperous condition; and the new code of laws (Corpus Carolinum), promulgated in 1770, is an honorable monument of his reign. In his disputes with the pope, Charles Emanuel maintained the rights of the state, as acknowledged by the concordate of 1726 (confirmed by Benedict XIV, in 1742), made all ecclesiastical appointments, subjected the clergy to taxation, and made his sanction requisite to give validity to the papal bulls. 2. The unfortunate Reigns of Victor Amadeus III (died 1796), and of Charles Emanuel IV (abdicated 1802). The former joined Austria against France, July 25, 1692, and was stripped of Savoy and Nizza in September of the same year. The latter entered into an alliance with France against Austria (April 5, 1797); but his territory was, nevertheless, invaded by the French directory, which made the complaints of the Sardinian people against the burden of taxes and the privileges of the nobility a pretext, and he was compelled to cede all his continental dominions (Dec. 9, 1798) to France. He retained only the island of Sardinia, whither he was obliged to retire with his family. June 4, 1802, he abdicated in favor of his brother, Victor Emanuel I, and lived as a private individual at Rome, where he died in 1819, having entered the order of Jesuits in 1817. From 1806, Piedmont with Genoa was incorporated with the French empire.

3. The Restoration and Extension of the Sardinian Monarchy by the Congress of Vienna. Victor Emanuel I returned, May 20, 1814, to Turin, his continental territories having been restored by the peace of Paris. Half of Savoy was left in the hands of the French; which, however, was restored by the treaty of Paris in 1815 (November 20), together with Moaco. On the other hand, Carouge and Chesne, with 12,700 inhabitants, were ceded to Geneva (October 23, 1816). The congress of Vienna was desirous of strengthening the kings of Sardinia, as holders of the passes of the Alps, and England wished to establish a commercial intercourse with the court of Turin. Genoa, therefore, was annexed as a duchy to the Sardinian monarchy, December 14, 1814. Victor Emanuel restored, as far as was practicable, the old constitution, readmitted the Jesuits, subscribed the holy alliance, and established a rigorous censorship. In 1818, he confirmed the sales of the royal domains made by the French, and appropriated an annual sum of 400,000 lire for the indemnification of the emigrants, who had lost their estates. As an ally of England, he obtained a permauent and honorable peace with the Barbary powers, through the British admiral lord Exmouth. In March, 1821, in consequence of the troubles which resulted in the occupation of the country by the Austrians, he abdicated the crown, in favor of his brother, Charles Felix. (See Piedmontese Revolution.) The measures which were adopted subsequently to the suppression of the insurrection, were directed to realize the plan of the congress of Vienna in erecting Sardinia into a partition wall between Austria and France. In compliance with the terms of the convention concluded between the Sardinian general della Torre and the Austrian, Prussian and Russian ambassador, Sardinia was occupied by Austrian troops, for which Austria was to receive $1,250,000 a year, besides provisions. Rigorous measures were taken to extirpate "revolutionary principles," as they were styled. In the universities of Turin and Genoa, and other institutions of education, a strict supervision over the conduct of the students was maintained; the Jesuits were admitted into Savoy and the island of Sardinia; the royal schools were committed to their care, and, in 1823, the provincial college was put under their direction. The Jews were subjected to severe burdens and great disabilities. To protect the Genoese commerce against

the Barbary corsairs, the whole navy of Sardinia (consisting of one frigate and eight smaller vessels) was ordered to sea, but effected nothing. Through the mediation of Great Britain, however, a peace was concluded in 1825, Sardinia agreeing to make certain presents to the dey of Algiers and the bey of Tunis. The congress of Verona (1822) provided for the gradual evacuation of the country by foreign troops, which was completed towards the close of 1823; but, at the same time, as apprehensions were entertained from the Piedmontese fugitives in Switzerland, such representations were made to the federal diet as not only to effect their removal, but to impose restrictions upon the Swiss press. Intercourse with Spain was broken even previously to the invasion of that country by the French; and the prince of Carignan (the present king), who had been banished from court on account of his conduct during the Piedmontese insurrection, served as a volunteer under the duke d'Angoulême. Still Sardinia embraced the Austrian politics with more cordiality than the French, both in regard to her domestic administration, and in her Italian policy in general. A royal edict, of 1825, prohibited any person learning to read or write, who had not property to the amount of 1500 lire (about $400), and any one studying at the university who had not as much more in the funds. Translations of the works of Göthe, Wieland, and Schiller, were also prohibited within the Sardinian states. Charles Felix died March 29, 1831, and was succeeded by Charles Albert, prince of Carignan. Some troubles broke out in Sardinia: the Genoese merchants offered the king a large sum of money to induce him to consent to the independence of Genoa; but the offer was rejected, and his majesty was actually besieged in Genoa, until relieved by Austrian troops.-See the articles Italy, and Italy, Travels in, with the works there referred to; see also Manno's Storia di Sardegna (Turin, 1825); Mimaut's Histoire de Sardaigne (Paris, 1825); and De la Marmora's Voyage de Sardaigne (1826).

SARDONYX. (See Chalcedony.)

SARMATIANS. The Sclavonians and other nations, who inhabited the northern parts of Europe and Asia, were called by the ancients Sarmatians. European Sarmatia comprehended (according to Gatterer, who, however, extended it too far) Poland from the Vistula, Prussia, Courland, Livonia, Russia, and European Tartary, together with the Crimea; Asiatic

Sarmatia embraced Asiatic Russia, Siberia and Mongolia. The Sarmatians were nomadic tribes. They were probably descendants of the Medes, and dwelt originally in Asia, between the Don, the Wolga, and mount Caucasus. They were allies of king Mithridates VI of Pontus, even at that time were settled on the west of the Don, and afterwards extended over the country between the Don and the Danube. They were, at times, formidable to the Asiatic kings. Among the most remarkable of them were the Jazyges and the Roxolani. They carried on long and bloody, but for the most part unsuccessful, wars against the Romans. A part of them, with other barbarians, entered Gaul A. D. 407; the remainder were conquered by Attila, but after his death submitted to the emperor Marcian, who assigned them a residence on the Don. Here they afterwards united themselves to the Goths, and formed with them one nation.

SARPI, Pietro. (See Paul of Venice.) SARRACENIA, or SIDE-SADDLE FLOWER. The species of sarracenia are among the most singular productions of the vegetable world. They are exclusively North American, and, according to Mr. Nuttall, are not found west of the Alleghanies. The leaves have the form of a long tube or funnel, conic or swollen, often containing water, and terminated by an appendage, which varies in form in the different species. The flowers resemble, in size and form, those of the splatter-dock or yellow water-lily (nuphar). All inhabit marshy grounds. The S. purpurea is the most common species, and by far the most widely diffused, being frequently met with from Hudson's bay to Carolina: the stems are eight or ten inches high, arising from the centre of the leaves, simple, leafless, and are terminated with large flowers, of a green color mixed with reddish-brown; the leaves have a large heart-shaped appendage, smooth externally, and covered within with scattered whitish horizontal hairs. The other species are confined to the Southern States. SARSAPARILLA. The roots of the smilar sarsaparilla, and doubtless of other species of smilax (for all those plants closely resemble each other in their sensible properties), are very long and slender, with a wrinkled bark, brown externally and white within, and have a small woody heart. They are inodorous, and have a mucilaginous and very slightly bitter taste; they seem to possess no very Five principle, although they have en

joyed a very high repute, at different times. as a specific in venereal and scrofulous diseases: they have sudorific and diuretic properties, but only in a slight degree Sarsaparilla is one of the ingredients of the famous Rob of Laffecteur, as well as of Swaim's Panacea, and various other similar remedies. The species of smilax ar very numerous in the U. States, especially in the southern parts. They are greet vines, usually spiny, with scattered leaves, and are very troublesome in the woods, in certain districts, forming impenetrable thickets. They are allied, in their botanical characters, to the asparagus, but differ widely in habit; the leaves are coriaceous or membranous, entire, nerved, and usually more or less heart-shaped; the leafstalks are generally provided with tendrils at the base. The flowers are dicecious, chiefly disposed in little axillary umbels. and the corolla is divided into six lobes: the male flowers have six stamens; the fruit is a small globular berry, containing three seeds, or often one or two only, by reason of abortion. The S. China grows in China and Japan, and the roots are employed in those countries for the same purposes, and have enjoyed the same reputation as our sarsaparilla. It is, besides, used for food. The true sarsaparilla has smooth, oval, membranous, heartshaped leaves, and grows in Mexico, Peru and Brazil: it is said, likewise, to inhabit the U. States; but it is not probable that our own is the same with the South American species.

SARTI, Joseph, a composer, was born at Faenza, in 1729, and died in 1802. He was, for a long time, master of the chapel to Catharine II, in St. Petersburg, who treated him very liberally. He composed a grand Te-Deum for the taking of Oczakow, the bass of which was accompanied by cannons of different calibre. A piece of music composed by him for Good Friday, was performed by sixty-six singers and one hundred Russian horns, besides the usual instruments.

SARTO, Andrea del (his proper name is Andrea Vannucchi); a celebrated painter, of the Florentine school, born at Florence, in 1488. His teachers were not of a high order, and he cultivated his talents principally by the study of great masters, such as Leonardo and Michael Angelo. Some maintain that he was deficient in invention; whence, in some of his compositions, he made use of the engravings of Albert Dürer, which had then become known. He painted many pieces for his native city. Francis I in

duced him, by a considerable salary, to go to France in 1518. But his extravagant wife led him into acts of ingratitude against the prince. He soon went back to Italy, and appropriated to the use of himself and his wife large sums, which had been given him, by his royal patron, to purchase the pictures of great masters in Italy. He repented, it is true, of his faults, but could not recover the king's favor. Among other works, he painted, about this time, the beautiful Sacrifice of Abraham, which has since been placed in the gallery of Dresden. The following anecdote is related of his wonderful skill in imitation :-He copied Raphael's portrait of Leo X so exquisitely as even to deceive Giulio Romano, who had aided Raphael in the drapery. Among his most celebrated works is a Burial in the palace Pitti, and the Dead Savior with Mary and the Saints, in the gallery of the grand-duke; also a beautiful Madonna, in the church of l'Annunziata, called Madonna del sacco, and several others in Florence; a Charity, now in Basle; Tobias with the Angel; and several Holy Families; the History of Joseph, in two paintings, in the Paris museum. In 1529, when Florence was taken, the soldiers, on entering the refectory which contained his picture of the Last Supper, were struck with awe, and retired without committing any violence. He died of the plague, in 1530. His coloring in fresco, as well as in oil, was full of sweetness and force: his draperies are easy and graceful. The naked, in his compositions, is excellently designed, but his figures want that force and vivacity which animate the works of other great painters, though they possess correctness, truth and simplicity. Sometimes he is too anxious to produce effect. Giacomo de Pontormo was his pupil.

SARUM, OLD; a rotten borough in Wiltshire, two miles north of Salisbury. It was anciently a considerable city, and by the Romans called Sorbiodunum, though at present reduced to some ruins and intrenchments. Two members, however, are yet returned to parliament by the proprietors, and the election takes place in the field, on the spot where the last houses of the city stood. The present proprietor of Old Sarum (lord Caledon) paid about £60,000 for the small estate on which the borough stands. It was the original situation of Salisbury, and the bishop had a castle here; but the see was removed to the present situation of Salisbury (q. v.), in the year 1219. Before the reforma

tion in England, the most celebrated liturgy in use in that country was that styled secundum usum Sarum, compiled by the bishop of Salisbury, in the eleventh century.

SASSAFRAS. (See Laurel.)

SASSOFERATO; a painter, so called from the place of his birth, a town in the duchy of Urbino, States of the Church. His true name was Giambattista Salvi. He was born in 1605, learned the elements of his art from his father, and afterwards studied under Domenichino, Guido and Albani. His works resemble those of the latter, and are executed with the same care. His paintings were chiefly the Madonna and Child, the latter sleeping. His heads are expressive and lovely. SATAN. (See Devil.)

SATE; an Egyptian goddess. Hieroglyphics, vol. vi, p. 319.)

(See

SATIN; a soft, closely-woven silk, with a glossy surface. In the manufacture of other silken stuffs, each half of the warp is raised alternately; but in weaving satin, the workman only raises the fifth or the eighth part of the warp; thus the woof is hidden beneath the warp, which, presenting an even, close and smooth surface, is the more capable of reflecting the rays of light. In this way satin acquires that lustre and brilliancy which distinguish it from most other kinds of silks. The chief seats of this branch of manufacture are Lyons in France, and Genoa and Florence in Italy. From the East Indies are imported those light stuffs called Indian or Chinese satins. They are either plain, damasked, striped, open-worked, or embroidered. Both in lustre and execution, they are far inferior to the Lyonese satins; they, however, possess this peculiar property, that, even after scouring, they retain their original gloss.

SATIN-SPAR; carbonate of lime, in delicate, almost compact, white fibres. (See Lime.)

SATIRE; in the widest sense of the word, pungent ridicule or cutting censure of faults, vices or weaknesses; hence the phrase a "satirical person." In a narrower sense, in which it is more commonly used, it is a poem, of which ridicule and censure are the object and chief characteristic. This species of poetry had its origin with the Romans: the name is derived from satur (by no means from satyr), and refers, originally, to the mixture of subjects treated, and of metres used, in the earlier productions of this kind. Satire is one of the latest branches of poetry cultivated, because it presupposes not merely